Examine individual changes

'Fuɔk! {{Short description|Siberian Turkic language}} {{Distinguish|Yokuts language|Saka language|Yakutia}} {{Infobox language | name = Yakut | altname = Sakha | nativename = {{lang|sah|Саха тыла,}} {{transl|sah|saxa tıla}} | pronunciation = {{IPA-all|saχa tɯla|}} | states = [[Russia]] | region = [[Sakha Republic|Yakutia]], [[Magadan Oblast]], [[Amur Oblast]], [[Krasnoyarsk Krai]] ([[Evenkiysky District]]) | ethnicity = [[Yakuts]] | speakers = c. 480,000 | date = | ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sakha-language|title=Sakha language|publisher=Britannica}}</ref> | refname = Yakut | familycolor = Altaic | fam1 = [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] | fam2 = [[Common Turkic languages|Common Turkic]] | fam3 = [[Siberian Turkic languages|Siberian Turkic]] | fam4 = Northern Siberian | script = [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] ([[Yakut scripts|formerly Latin and Cyrillic-based]]) | nation = {{Flag|Russia}} *{{Flag|Yakutia}} | iso2 = sah | iso3 = sah | glotto = yaku1245 | glottorefname = Sakha | map = Yakut and Dolgan languages.png | mapcaption = {{legend|#000080|Sakha language}} {{legend|#015A01|[[Dolgan language]]}} | notice = IPA | map2 = Lang Status 80-VU.svg | mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Yakut is classified as Vulnerable by the [[UNESCO]] [[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]}}}} }} '''Yakut''' {{IPAc-en|j|ə|ˈ|k|uː|t}} {{respell|yə|KOOT}},<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Yakut}}</ref><!--<ref>[https://omniglot.com/writing/yakut.htm], Yakut language, Omniglot</ref><ref>{{cite web| editor-last1= Hammarström| editor-first1 = Harald| editor-last2 = Forke| editor-first2 = Robert| editor-last3 = Haspelmath| editor-first3 = Martin| editor-last4 = Bank| editor-first4 = Sebastian| year = 2020|title = Sakha | work = [[Glottolog]] 4.3| url = https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/yaku1245}}</ref>--> also known as '''Yakutian''', '''Sakha''', '''Saqa''' or '''Saxa''' ({{lang-sah|саха тыла|link=no}}), is a [[Turkic languages|Turkic language]] belonging to [[Siberian Turkic languages|Siberian Turkic branch]] and spoken by around 450,000 native speakers, primarily the ethnic [[Yakuts]] and one of the official languages of [[Sakha Republic|Sakha (Yakutia)]], a federal republic in the [[Russian Federation]]. The Yakut language differs from all other Turkic languages in the presence of a layer of vocabulary of unclear origin (possibly [[Paleosiberian languages|Paleo-Siberian]]). There is also a large number of words of [[Mongolic languages|Mongolian]] origin related to ancient borrowings, as well as numerous recent borrowings from [[Russian language|Russian]]. Like other Turkic languages and their ancestor [[Proto-Turkic language|Proto-Turkic]], Yakut is an [[agglutinative language]] and features [[vowel harmony]]. ==Classification== Yakut is a member of the [[Siberian Turkic languages|Northeastern Common Turkic family]] of languages, which also includes [[Shor language|Shor]], [[Tuvan language|Tuvan]] and [[Dolgan language|Dolgan]]. Like most [[Turkic languages]], Yakut has [[vowel harmony]], is [[Agglutinative language|agglutinative]] and has no [[grammatical gender]]. Word order is usually [[subject–object–verb]]. Yakut has been influenced by [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] and [[Mongolian languages]].{{sfn|Forsyth|1994|loc=p.56: "Their language...Turkic in its vocabulary and grammar, shows the influence of both Tungus and Mongolian."}} Historically, Yakut left the community of [[Common Turkic]] speakers relatively early.{{sfn|Johanson|2021|pp=20,24}} Due to this, it diverges in many ways from other Turkic languages and mutual intelligibility between Yakut and other Turkic languages is low.{{sfn|Stachowski|Menz|1998}} Nevertheless, Yakut contains many features which are important for the reconstruction of [[Proto-Turkic language|Proto-Turkic]], such as the preservation of long vowels.{{sfn|Johanson|2021|p=19}} ==Geographic distribution== Yakut is spoken mainly in the [[Sakha Republic]]. It is also used by ethnic Yakuts in [[Khabarovsk Region]] and a small diaspora in other parts of the [[Russian Federation]], [[Turkey]], and other parts of the world. [[Dolgan language|Dolgan]], a close relative of Yakut, which formerly was considered by some a dialect of Yakut,{{sfn|Antonov|1997}} is spoken by [[Dolgans]] in [[Krasnoyarsk Region]]. Yakut is widely used as a [[lingua franca]] by other ethnic minorities in the [[Sakha Republic]] – more [[Dolgans]], [[Evenks]], [[Evens]] and [[Yukagirs]] speak Yakut than their own languages. About 8% of the people of other ethnicities than Yakut living in Sakha claimed knowledge of the Yakut language during the [[2002 Russian Census|2002 census]].<ref>Russian Census 2002. [http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_04_06.xls 6. Владение языками (кроме русского) населением отдельных национальностей по республикам, автономной области и автономным округам Российской Федерации] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104083616/http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_04_06.xls |date=2006-11-04 }} (''Knowledge of languages other than Russian by the population of republics, autonomous oblast and autonomous districts'') {{in lang|ru}}</ref> ==Phonology== {{See also|#Orthography}} ===Consonants=== Yakut has the following consonants [[phonemes]],{{sfn|Pakendorf|Stapert|2020}} where the [[International phonetic alphabet|IPA]] value is provided in slashes '//' and the native script value is provided in bold followed by the romanization in parentheses. {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" |+ Consonant phonemes of Yakut ! colspan=2| ! [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]] ! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]] ! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]/<br />[[Uvular consonant|uvular]] ! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- ! colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] | {{IPAslink|m}}<br> '''м''' (''m'') | {{IPAslink|n̪|n}}<br> '''н''' (''n'') | {{IPAslink|ɲ}} <br>'''нь''' (''ń'') | {{IPAslink|ŋ}} <br>'''ҥ''' (''ŋ'') | |- ! rowspan=2| [[Plosive]] /<br />[[Affricate]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | {{IPAslink|p}} <br>'''п''' (''p'') | {{IPAslink|t̪|t}} <br> '''т''' (''t'') | <!--{{IPAslink|c͡ç}} source?--> {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}} <br> '''ч''' (''č'') | {{IPAslink|k}} <br> '''к''' (''k'') | |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | {{IPAslink|b}} <br> '''б''' (''b'') | {{IPAslink|d̪|d}} <br> '''д''' (''d'') | <!--{{IPAslink|ɟ͡ʝ}} source?--> {{IPAslink|d͡ʑ}} <br> '''дь''' (''ǰ'') | {{IPAslink|ɡ}} <br>'''г''' (''g'') | |- ! rowspan=2| [[Fricative]] ! {{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}} | | {{IPAslink|s}} <br> '''с''' (''s'') | | {{IPAslink|χ}} <br> '''х''' (''x'') | {{IPAslink|h}} <br> '''һ''' (''h'') |- ! {{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}} | | | | {{IPAslink|ʁ}} <br> '''ҕ''' (''ɣ'') | |- ! rowspan=2| [[Approximant]] ! {{small|plain}} | | {{IPAslink|l}} <br>'''л''' (''l'') | {{IPAslink|j}} <br> '''й''' (''y'') | | |- ! {{small|[[nasalization|nasalized]]}} | | | {{IPAslink|ȷ̃}} <br> '''й''' (''ỹ'') | | |- ! colspan=2| [[Flap consonant|Flap]] | | {{IPAslink|ɾ}} <br> '''р''' (''r'') | | | |} * {{IPA|/n, t, d/}} are [[Laminal consonant|laminal]] [[Denti-alveolar consonant|denti-alveolar]] {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|n̪}}, {{IPAplink|t̪}}, {{IPAplink|d̪}}]}}, whereas {{IPA|/s, l, ɾ/}} are [[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]] {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|s}}, {{IPAplink|l}}, {{IPAplink|ɾ}}]}}. * The nasal glide {{IPA|/ȷ̃/}} is not distinguished from {{IPA|/j/}} in the orthography, where both are written as {{angbr|й}}. Thus '''айыы''' can be ''ayïï'' {{IPA |[ajɯː]}} 'deed, creation, work' or ''aỹïï'' {{IPA |[aȷ̃ɯː]}} 'sin, transgression.'{{sfn|Krueger|1962|p=67}} The nasal glide {{IPA|/ȷ̃/}} has a very restricted distribution, appearing in very few words.{{sfn|Pakendorf|Stapert|2020|p=432}} * {{IPA|/ɾ/}} is pronounced as a flap {{IPAslink|ɾ}} between vowels, e.g. '''орон''' (''oron'') {{IPA|[oɾon]}} 'place', and as a trill at the end of words, e.g. '''тур''' (''tur'') {{IPA|[tur]}} 'stand'.{{sfn|Krueger|1962|pp=68-9}}{{sfn|Kharitonov|1947|p=63}} ** {{IPA|/ɾ/}} does not occur at the beginning of words in native Yakut words; borrowed Russian words with onset {{IPA|/ɾ/}} are usually rendered with an epenthetic vowel, e.g. Russian '''рама''' (''rama'') > Yakut '''араама''' (''araama'') 'frame'. Yakut is in many ways phonologically unique among the [[Turkic languages]]. Yakut and the closely related [[Dolgan language]] are the only Turkic languages without [[Sibilant#Tongue shape|hushing sibilants]]. Additionally, no known Turkic languages other than Yakut and [[Khorasani Turkic language|Khorasani Turkic]] have the palatal nasal {{IPAslink|ɲ}}. ==== Consonant assimilation ==== Consonants at morpheme boundaries undergo extensive [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilation]], both progressive and regressive.{{sfn|Kharitonov|1947|p=64}}{{sfn|Stachowski|Menz|1998|p=420}} All suffixes possess numerous [[allomorphs]]. For suffixes which begin with a consonant, the surface form of the consonant is conditioned on the stem-final segment. There are four such [[Phoneme#Neutralization and archiphonemes|archiphonemic]] consonants: ''G'', ''B'', ''T'', and ''L''. Examples of each are provided in the following table for the suffixes ''-GIt'' (second-person plural possessive suffix, ''oɣoɣut'' 'your [pl.] child'), ''-BIt'' (first-person plural possessive suffix, ''oɣobut'', 'our child'), ''-TA'' ([[partitive case]] suffix, ''{{transl|sah|tiiste}}'' 'some teeth'), ''-LArA'' (third-person plural possessive suffix, ''oɣoloro'' 'their child'). Note that the alternation in the vowels is governed by vowel harmony (see [[Vowel harmony|the main article]] and [[#Vowel harmony|the below section]]). {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" |+ Yakut consonant assimilation in suffixes |- ! rowspan="2"|Consonant<br />archiphoneme ! colspan="7" | Immediately preceding sound (example) |- ! High vowel<br /> i, u, ï, ü<br />(''kihi'') ! Low vowel<br /> a, e, o, ö<br />(''oɣo'') ! {{IPA|/l/}}<br /> (''uol'') ! {{IPA|/j,ɾ/}}<br />(''kötör'') ! Voiceless <br /> consonants<br /> (''tiis'') ! {{IPA|/χ/}}<br />(''ïnaχ'') ! Nasal<br />(''oron'') |- ! G<br />''-GIt'' | {{IPAblink|g}}<br />''kihigit'' | {{IPAblink|ɣ}}<br />''oɣoɣut'' | {{IPAblink|g}}<br />''uolgut'' | {{IPAblink|g}}<br />''kötörgüt'' | {{IPAblink|k}}<br />''tiiskit'' | {{IPAblink|χ}}<br />''ïnaχχït'' | {{IPAblink|ŋ}}<br />''oroŋŋut''{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Regressive velarization.}} |- ! B<br />''-BIt'' | {{IPAblink|b}}<br />''kihibit'' | {{IPAblink|b}}<br />''oɣobut'' | {{IPAblink|b}}<br />''uolbut'' | {{IPAblink|b}}<br />''kötörbüt'' | {{IPAblink|p}}<br />''tiispit'' | {{IPAblink|p}}<br />''ïnaχpït'' | {{IPAblink|m}}<br />''orommut''{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Regressive labialization.}} |- ! T<br />''-TA'' | {{IPAblink|t}}<br />''kihite'' | {{IPAblink|t}}<br />''oɣoto'' | {{IPAblink|l}}<br />''uolla'' | {{IPAblink|d}}<br />''kötördö'' | {{IPAblink|t}}<br />''tiiste'' | {{IPAblink|t}}<br />''ïnaχta'' | {{IPAblink|n}}<br />''oronnut'' |- ! L<br />''-LArA'' | {{IPAblink|l}}<br />''kihilere'' | {{IPAblink|l}}<br />''oɣoloro'' | {{IPAblink|l}}<br />''uollara'' | {{IPAblink|d}}<br />''kötördörö'' | {{IPAblink|t}}<br />''tiistere'' | {{IPAblink|t}}<br />''ïnaχtara'' | {{IPAblink|n}}<br />''oronnoro'' |- ! | 'person' | 'child' | 'boy' | 'bird' | 'tooth' | 'cow' | 'bed' |} {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} There is an additional regular [[morphophonological]] pattern for {{IPAblink|t}}-final stems: they assimilate in [[place of articulation]] with an immediately following labial or velar. For example ''at'' 'horse' > ''akkït'' 'your [pl.] horse', > ''appït'' 'our horse'. ==== Debuccalization ==== <!-- This section conflates synchronic and diachronic debuccalization. --> Yakut initial '''s-''' corresponds to initial '''h-''' in Dolgan and played an important operative rule in the development of proto-Yakut, ultimately resulting in initial '''Ø-''' < '''*h-''' < '''*s-''' (example: Dolgan '''h'''uoq and Yakut '''s'''uox, both meaning "not").{{Clarify|date=March 2022|Historical debuccalization is the same in both, the synchronic patterns in the reflex to PT *y (>s) are what differs between Dolgan and Yakut}} The historical change of ''*s'' > ''h'', known as [[debuccalization]], is a common sound-change across the world's languages, being characteristic of such languages as Greek and Indo-Iranian in their development from Proto-Indo-European, as well as such Turkic languages as Bashkir, e.g. '''höt''' 'milk' < '''*süt'''.<ref>[http://www.livingtongues.org/docs/yakut_historical_phonology.pdf Ubrjatova, E. I. 1960 Opyt sravnitel'nogo izuc˙enija fonetic˙eskix osobennostej naselenija nekotoryx rajonov Jakutskoj ASSR. Moscow. 1985. Jazyk noril'skix dolgan. Novosibirsk: "Nauka" SO. In Tungusic Languages 2 (2): 1–32. Historical Aspects of Yakut (Saxa) Phonology. Gregory D. S. Anderson. University of Chicago.]</ref> [[Debuccalization]] of /s/ to /h/ is also found as a [[diachronic]] change from [[Proto-Celtic]] to [[Brittonic languages|Brittonic]], and has actually become a ''[[synchronic analysis|synchronic]]'' grammaticalised feature called [[lenition]] in the related [[Goidelic]] languages ([[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic|Scottish]], and [[Manx language|Manx]]). Debuccalization is also an active phonological process in modern Yakut. Intervocalically the phoneme {{IPAslink|s}} becomes {{IPAblink|h}}. For example the /s/ in '''кыыс''' (''kïïs'') 'girl' becomes [h] between vowels:{{sfn|Johanson|2021|p=36}} {{interlinear|lang=sah|number=a. | kïï'''s''' > kïï'''h'''-ïm | girl > girl-POSS.1SG | 'girl; daughter' > 'my daughter' }} ===Vowels=== Yakut has twenty phonemic vowels: eight short vowels, eight long vowels,{{refn|group=lower-alpha|The long vowel phonemes /eː/, /ɔː/, and /øː/ appear in very few words and are thus considered [[marginal phonemes]].{{sfn|Johanson|2021|p=283}}}} and four diphthongs. The following table give broad transcriptions for each vowel phoneme,{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Note that these vowels are extremely broad. Narrower transcriptions{{sfnm|1a1=Pakendorf|1a2=Stapert|1y=2020|1p=433|2a1=Anderson|2y=1998}} transcribe the high back non-front vowel '''ы''' as central {{IPAslink|ɨ}}. The front non-high unrounded open vowel in '''э''', '''ээ''', and '''иэ''' are more accurately {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, {{IPA|[ɛː]}}, {{IPA|[iɛ]}}, respectively.}} as well as the native script bold and romanization in italics:<!-- Previously this table transcribed the diphthongs as {{IPA|ie̯}}, {{IPA|y̑ø}}, {{IPA|ɯa̯}}, {{IPA|u̯o}}. Removed as this is too narrow --> {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" |+ Vowel phonemes of Yakut ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | ! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]] ! colspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]] |- !{{small|unrounded}} || {{small|rounded}} !{{small|unrounded}} || {{small|rounded}} |- !rowspan="2" | [[Close vowel|Close]] !{{small|short}} |{{IPAslink|i}}<br /> '''и''' (''i'') |{{IPAslink|y}}<br /> '''ү''' (''ü'') |{{IPAslink|ɯ}}<br /> '''ы''' (''ï''{{refn|group=lower-alpha|'''ы''' is occasionally Romanized as ''y'',{{sfnm|1a1=Vinokurova|1y=2005|2a1=Baker|2a2=Vinokurova|2y=2010}} consistent with the [[BGN/PCGN romanization of Russian|BGN/PCGN romanization of Russian Cyrillic]]. Turkologists and Altaicists tend to transcribe the vowel as ''ï'',{{sfnm|1a1=Robbeets|1a2=Savalyev|1y=2020|1p=lxxxii|2a1=Johanson|2y=2021|3a1=Krueger|3y=1962|4a1=Stachowski|4a2=Menz|4y=1998}} or as ''ɨ''.{{sfn|Anderson|1998}}}}) |{{IPAslink|u}}<br /> '''у''' (''u'') |- !{{small|long}}{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Some authors romanize long vowels with a macron (e.g. /iː/ ''ī'', /yː/ ''ǖ''){{sfn|Stachowski|Menz|1998}} or with a colon (e.g. /iː/ ''i:''/''iː'', /yː/, ''ü:''/''üː'').<ref>{{harvnb|Pakendorf|2007}}; {{harvnb|Pakendorf|Stapert|2020}}</ref>}} |{{IPAslink|iː}}<br /> '''ии ''' (''ii'') |{{IPAslink|yː}}<br /> '''үү''' (''üü'') |{{IPAslink|ɯː}}<br /> '''ыы''' (''ïï'') |{{IPAslink|uː}}<br /> '''уу''' (''uu'') |- !colspan="2" | [[Diphthong]] |{{IPA|/ie/}}<br /> '''иэ ''' (''ie'') |{{IPA|/yø/}}<br /> '''үө''' (''üö'') |{{IPA|/ɯa/}}<br /> '''ыа''' (''ïa'') |{{IPA|/uɔ/}}<br /> '''уо''' (''uo'') |- !rowspan="2" | [[Open vowel|Open]] !{{small|short}} |{{IPAslink|e}}<br /> '''э''' (''e'') |{{IPAslink|ø}}<br /> '''ө''' (''ö'') |{{IPAslink|a}}<br /> '''а''' (''a'') |{{IPAslink|ɔ}}<br /> '''о''' (''o'') |- !{{small|long}} |{{IPAslink|eː}}<br /> '''ээ''' (''ee'') |{{IPAslink|øː}}<br /> '''өө''' (''öö'') |{{IPAslink|aː}}<br /> '''аа''' (''aa'') |{{IPAslink|ɔː}}<br /> '''оо''' (''oo'') |} {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} ==== Vowel harmony ==== Like other [[Vowel harmony#Turkic languages|Turkic languages]], a characteristic feature of Yakut is [[vowel harmony|progressive vowel harmony]]. Most root words obey vowel harmony, for example in '''кэлин''' (''kelin'') 'back', all the vowels are front and unrounded. Yakut's vowel harmony in suffixes is the most complex system in the Turkic family.{{sfn|Johanson|2021|p=315}} Vowel harmony is an [[Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] process where vowels in one syllable take on certain features of vowels in the preceding syllable. In Yakut, subsequent vowels all take on [[Vowel#Acoustics|frontness]] and all non-low vowels take on [[lip rounding]] of preceding syllables' vowels.{{sfnm|Krueger|1962|1pp=48-9|2a1=Stachowski|2a2=Menz|2y=1998|2p=419}} There are two main rules of vowel harmony: # Frontness/backness harmony: ## Front vowels are always followed by front vowels. ## Back vowels are always followed by back vowels. # Rounding harmony: ## Unrounded vowels are always followed by unrounded vowels. ## Close rounded vowels always occur after close rounded vowels. ## Open unrounded vowels '''do not''' assimilate in rounding with close rounded vowels. The quality of the diphthongs /ie, ïa, uo, üö/ for the purposes of vowel harmony is determined by the first segment in the diphthong. Taken together, these rules mean that the pattern of subsequent syllables in Yakut is entirely predictable, and all words will follow the following pattern:{{sfn|Johanson|2021|p=316}} Like the [[#Consonant_assimilation|consonant assimilation]] rules above, suffixes display numerous allomorphs determined by the stem they attach to. There are two [[Phoneme#Neutralization and archiphonemes|archiphoneme vowels]] ''I'' (an underlyingly high vowel) and ''A'' (an underlyingly low vowel). <div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;"> {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" |+ Yakut vowel harmony |- ! Category ! Final vowel <br /> in stem ! Suffix vowels |- ! Unrounded, back | a, aa, ï, ïï, ïa | a, aa, ï, ïï, ïa |- ! Unrounded, front | e, ee, i, ii, ie | e, ee, i, ii, ie |- ! Rounded back | u, uu, uo | a, aa, u, uu, uo |- ! Rounded, front, close | ü, üü, üö | e, ee, ü, üü, üö |- ! Rounded, back | o, oo | o, oo, u, uu, uo |- ! Rounded, open, low | ö, öö | ö, öö, ü, üü, üö |} </div> <div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;"> {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" |+ Vowel harmony of archiphonemic vowels |- ! rowspan="4"|Archiphonemic <br/> vowel ! colspan="6"|Preceding vowel |- ! colspan="3"|Front ! colspan="3"|Back |- ! rowspan="2"|unrounded<br/>(''i, ii, ie, e, ee'') ! colspan="2"|rounded ! rowspan="2"|unrounded<br/> (''ï, ïï, ïa, a, aa'') ! colspan="2"|rounded |- ! high<br/>(''ü, üü, üö'') ! low<br/>(''ö, öö'') ! high<br/>(''u, uu, uo'') ! low<br/>(''o, oo'') |- ! I | i | colspan="2"| ü | ï | colspan="2"|u |- ! A | colspan="2"|e | ö | colspan="2"|a | o |} </div> Examples of ''I'' can be seen in the first-person singular possessive agreement suffix ''-(I)m'':{{refn|''-(I)m'' indicates that this suffix appears as ''-m'' in vowel-final words (e.g. ''oɣo'' 'child' > ''oɣo'''m''''' 'my child'.}} as in (a): {| | {{Interlinear|lang=sah|number=a. | aat-'''ïm''' | name-POSS.1SG | 'my name' }} | {{Interlinear|lang=sah | et-'''im''' | meat-POSS.1SG | 'my meat' }} | {{Interlinear|lang=sah | uol-'''um''' | son-POSS.1SG | 'my son' }} | {{Interlinear|lang=sah | üüt-'''üm''' | milk-POSS.1SG | 'my milk' }} |} The underlyingly low vowel phoneme ''A'' is represented through the third-person singular agreement suffix ''-(t)A''{{refn|Consonants in parentheses indicate that the suffix loses the consonant in consonant-final words, e.g. ''uol'' 'son' > ''uol'''a''''' 'his/her son.'}} in (b): {| | {{Interlinear|lang=sah|number=b. | aɣa-'''ta''' | father-POSS.3SG | 'his/her father' }} | {{Interlinear|lang=sah | iỹe-'''te''' | mother-POSS.3SG | 'his/her mother' }} | {{Interlinear|lang=sah | oɣo-'''to''' | child-POSS.3SG | 'his/her child' }} | {{Interlinear|lang=sah | töbö-'''tö''' | top-POSS.3SG | 'his/her top' }} | {{Interlinear|lang=sah | uol-'''a''' | son-POSS.3SG | 'his/her son' }} |} ==Orthography== {{Main|Yakut scripts}} After three earlier phases of development, Yakut is currently written using the [[Cyrillic script]]: the modern Yakut alphabet, established in 1939 by the [[Soviet Union]], consists of all the [[Russian alphabet|Russian]] characters with five additional letters for [[phonemes]] not present in Russian: '''Ҕҕ, Ҥҥ, Өө, Һһ, Үү''', as follows: {| style="font-family:Arial Unicode MS; font-size:1.4em; border-color:#000000; border-width:1px; border-style:solid; border-collapse:collapse; background-color:#F8F8EF" |+ {{small|Yakut Cyrillic alphabet ('''Сахалыы сурук-бичик''', ''Saxalïï suruk-bičik'')}} |- | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | А а | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Б б | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | В в | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Г г | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҕ ҕ | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Д д | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Дь дь | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Е е | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ё ё |- | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ж ж | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | З з | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | И и | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Й й | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | К к | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Л л | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | М м | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Н н | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҥ ҥ |- | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Нь нь | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | О о | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ө ө | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | П п | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Р р | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | С с | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Һ һ | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Т т | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | У у |- | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ү ү | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ф ф | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Х х | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ц ц | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ч ч | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ш ш | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Щ щ | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ъ ъ | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ы ы |- | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ь ь | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Э э | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ю ю | style="width:3em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Я я |} {|class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ class="nowrap"| Yakut alphabet, letter names, [[International_phonetic_alphabet|IPA]] values |- ! scope="row"| {{small|Letter}} | А | Б | В | Г | Ҕ | Д | Дь | Е | Ё | Ж | З | И | Й | К | Л | М | Н | Ҥ | Нь | О | Ө | П | Р | С | Һ | Т | У | Ү | Ф | Х | Ц | Ч | Ш | Щ | Ъ | Ы | Ь | Э | Ю | Я |- ! scope="row"| {{small|Name}} | а | бэ | вэ | гэ | ҕэ | дэ | дьэ | е | ё | жэ | зэ | и | ый | кы | эл | эм | эн | ҥэ | ньэ | о | ө | пэ | эр | эс | һэ | тэ | у | ү | эф | хэ | цэ | че | ша | ща | {{refn|group=lower-alpha|кытаанах бэлиэ}} | ы | {{refn|group=lower-alpha|сымнатар бэлиэ.}} | э | ю | я |- ! scope="row"| {{small|IPA}} | {{IPAslink|a}} | {{IPAslink|b}} | {{IPAslink|v}} | {{IPAslink|g}} | {{IPAslink|ɣ}} | {{IPAslink|d}} | {{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}} | {{IPA|/(j)e/}} | {{IPA|/jo/}} | {{IPAslink|ʒ}} | {{IPAslink|z}} | {{IPAslink|i}} | {{IPAslink|j}}, {{IPAslink|ȷ̃}} | {{IPAslink|k}} | {{IPAslink|l}} | {{IPAslink|m}} | {{IPAslink|n}} | {{IPAslink|ŋ}} | {{IPAslink|ɲ}} | {{IPAslink|ɔ}} | {{IPAslink|ø}} | {{IPAslink|p}} | {{IPAslink|ɾ}} | {{IPAslink|s}} | {{IPAslink|h}} | {{IPAslink|t}} | {{IPAslink|u}} | {{IPAslink|y}} | {{IPAslink|f}} | {{IPAslink|χ}} | {{IPAslink|t͡s}} | {{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}} | {{IPAslink|ʃ}} | {{IPAslink|ɕː}} | {{IPA|/◌.j/}} | {{IPAslink|ɯ}} | {{IPAslink|◌ʲ}} | {{IPAslink|e}} | {{IPA|/ju/}} | {{IPA|/ja/}} |- |colspan="41"|{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} |} [[Long vowels]] are represented through the doubling of vowels, e.g. '''үүт''' (''üüt'') /{{IPA-link|yːt}}/ 'milk,' a practice that many scholars follow in Romanizations of the language.{{sfn|Krueger|1962}}{{sfn|Vinokurova|2005}}{{sfn|Petrova|2011}} The full Yakut alphabet contains letters for consonant phonemes not present in native words (and thus not indicated in the phonology tables above): the letters '''В''' {{IPAslink|v}}, '''Е''' /{{IPA|(j)e}}/, '''Ё''' /{{IPA|jo}}|/, '''Ж''' {{IPAslink|ʒ}}, '''З''' {{IPAslink|z}}, '''Ф''' {{IPAslink|f}}, '''Ц''' {{IPAslink|t͡s}}, '''Ш''' {{IPAslink|ʃ}}, '''Щ''' {{IPAslink|ɕː}}, '''[[Ъ]]''', '''Ю''' /{{IPA|ju}}/, '''Я''' /{{IPA|ja}}/ are used exclusively in Russian loanwords. In addition, in native Yakut words, the [[soft sign]] {{angbr|Ь}} is used exclusively in the digraphs {{angbr|дь}} and {{angbr|нь}}. ===Transliteration=== There are numerous conventions for the Romanization of Yakut. Bibliographic sources and libraries typically use the [[ALA-LC_romanization| ALA-LC]] Romanization tables for non-Slavic languages in Cyrillic script.<ref name="ALA romanization">{{cite web |title=Non-Slavic languages (in Cyrillic Script) |website=[[Library of Congress]] |url=https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/nonslav.pdf |access-date=31 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103195111/https://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/nonslav.pdf|archive-date=November 3, 2021}}</ref> Linguists often employ [[Turkology|Turkological]] standards for transliteration,<ref>{{harvnb|Krueger|1962}}; {{harvnb|Stachowski|Menz|1998}}; {{harvnb|Johanson|2021}}; {{harvnb|Menz|Monastyrev|2022}}</ref> or a mixture of Turkological standards and the [[International_phonetic_alphabet|IPA]].{{sfn|Anderson|1998}} In addition, others employ [[Turkish orthography]].{{sfn|Kirişçioğlu|1999}} Comparison of some of these systems can be seen in the following: {{fs interlinear|lang=sah|number=(a) | дьон | /d͡ʒon/ | people | 'people'<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sakhatyla.ru/translate?q=%D0%B4%D1%8C%D0%BE%D0%BD | title=дьон | author=<!-- Not stated--> | website=sakhatyla.ru | access-date=April 2, 2022 }}</ref>}} {{fs interlinear|lang=sah|number=(b) | айыы | /ajɯː/ | creation | 'creation'<ref>{{cite web| url= https://sakhatyla.ru/translate?q=%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%8B%D1%8B| title=айыы| website=sakhatyla.ru| access-date=April 2, 2022}}</ref>}} {{fs interlinear|lang=sah|number=(c) | бу ыт аттааҕар түргэнник сүүрэр | /bu ɯt at.taːɣar tyrgɛn.nɪk syːrɛr/ | DEM dog horse-COMP fast-ADV run-PRES | 'This dog runs faster than a horse'{{sfn|Krueger|1962|p=89}}}} {{fs interlinear|lang=sah|number=(d) | эһэ бөрөтөөҕөр күүстээх | /ɛhɛ bøɾøtøːɣør kyːstɛːχ/ | bear wolf-COMP strong-have | 'A bear is stronger than a wolf'{{sfn|Krueger|1962|p=89}}}} {| class=wikitable |+ Comparison of different conventions for transcribing Yakut |- ! colspan="2"| || дьон || айыы || бу || ыт || аттааҕар || түргэнник || сүүрэр || эһэ || бөрөтөөҕөр || күүстээх |- ! colspan="2"| IPA | /{{IPA|d͡ʒon}}/ || /{{IPA|ajɯː}}/ || /{{IPA|bu}}/ || /{{IPA|ɯt}}/ || /{{IPA|at.taːɣar}}/ || /{{IPA|tyrgɛn.nɪk}}/ || /{{IPA|syːrɛr}}/ || /{{IPA|ɛhɛ}}/ || /{{IPA|bøɾøtøːɣør}}/ || /{{IPA|kyːstɛːχ}}/ |- ! rowspan="3" | {{small|Turkological}} ! [[John_Krueger|Krueger]] | ǰon || ajıı || bu || ıt || attaaɣar || türgennik || süürer || ehe || böröötööɣör || küüsteeχ |- ! {{small|[[Lars_Johanson|Johanson]]}} | ǰon || ayï: || bu || ït || atta:ɣar || türgännik || sü:rär || ähä || börötö:ɣör || kü:stä:χ |- ! {{small|Robbeets<br> & Savalyev}} | ʤon || ïyïː || bu || ït || attaːɣar || türgennik || süːrer || ehe || börötöːɣör || kü:steːχ |- ! colspan="2" | [[ALA-LC_romanization|ALA-LC]]<ref name="ALA romanization"/> | d'on || aĭyy || bu || yt || attaaghar || tu̇rgennik || su̇u̇rer || eḣe || bȯrȯtȯȯghȯr || ku̇u̇steekh |- ! colspan="2" | KNAB<ref>{{Cite web|date=August 2019|title=Romanization|url= https://www.eki.ee/knab/lat/kblsah.pdf}}</ref> | djon ||ajy: || bu || yt || atta:ǧar || türgennik || sü:rer || eḩe || börötö:ǧör || kü:ste:h |- ! colspan="2" | [[Turkish orthography]] | con || ayıı || bu || ıt || attaağar || türgennik || süürer || ehe || börötööğör || küüsteex |} <!-- Old version of this '''Yakut alphabet''' (''Saqalyy suruk-bičik''): {| class="wikitable ipa" style="text-align:center" !Letter !! Name !! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !! Note !! KNAB romanization<ref>{{Cite web|date=August 2019|title=Romanization of Yakut |url= https://www.eki.ee/knab/lat/kblsah.pdf}}</ref> |- |А а || а || {{IPA|/a/}} || || A a |- |Б б || бэ || {{IPA|/b/}} || || B b |- |В в || вэ || {{IPA|/v/}} || align=left|found only in [[Russian language|Russian]] loanwords || V v |- |Г г || гэ || {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || || G g |- |Ҕ ҕ || ҕэ || {{IPA|/ɣ, ʁ/}} || || Ǧ ǧ |- |Д д || дэ || {{IPA|/d/}} || || D d |- |Дь дь || дьэ || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʝ/}} || || Dj dj |- |Е е || е || {{IPA|/e, je/}} || align=left|found only in [[Russian language|Russian]] loanwords || É é or e |- |Ё ё || ё || {{IPA|/jo/}} || align=left|found only in [[Russian language|Russian]] loanwords || Ë ë |- |Ж ж || жэ || {{IPA|/ʒ/}} || align=left|found only in [[Russian language|Russian]] loanwords || Ž ž |- |З з || зэ || {{IPA|/z/}} || align=left|found only in [[Russian language|Russian]] loanwords || Z z |- |И и || и || {{IPA|/i/}} || || I i |- |Й й || ый || {{IPA|/j, ȷ̃/}} || || J j |- |К к || кы || {{IPA|/k/}} || || K k |- |Л л || эл || {{IPA|/l/}} || || L l |- |М м || эм || {{IPA|/m/}} || || M m |- |Н н || эн || {{IPA|/n/}} || || N n |- |Ҥ ҥ || ҥэ || {{IPA|/ŋ/}} || || Ng ng |- |Нь нь || ньэ || {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || || Nj nj |- |О о || о || {{IPA|/ɔ/}} || || O o |- |Ө ө || ө || {{IPA|/ø/}} || || Ö ö |- |П п || пэ || {{IPA|/p/}} || || P p |- |Р р || эр || {{IPA|/ɾ/}} || || R r |- |С с || эс || {{IPA|/s/}} || || S s |- |Һ һ || һэ || {{IPA|/h/}} || || Ḩ ḩ |- |Т т || тэ || {{IPA|/t/}} || || T t |- |У у || у || {{IPA|/u/}} || || U u |- |Ү ү || ү || {{IPA|/y/}} || || Ü ü |- |Ф ф || эф || {{IPA|/f/}} || align=left|found only in [[Russian language|Russian]] loanwords || F f |- |Х х || хэ || {{IPA|/x, q~χ/}} || || H h or q |- |Ц ц || цэ || {{IPA|/ts/}} || align=left|found only in [[Russian language|Russian]] loanwords || Ts ts |- |Ч ч || че || {{IPA|/c͡ç/}} || || Č č |- |Ш ш || ша || {{IPA|/ʃ/}} || align=left|found only in [[Russian language|Russian]] loanwords || Š š |- |Щ щ || ща || {{IPA|/ɕː/}} || align=left|found only in [[Russian language|Russian]] loanwords || Šč šč |- |Ъ ъ || кытаанах бэлиэ|| {{IPA|/◌.j/}} || align=left|found only in [[Russian language|Russian]] loanwords || " |- |Ы ы || ы || {{IPA|/ɯ/}} || || Y y |- |Ь ь || сымнатар бэлиэ || {{IPA|/◌ʲ/}} || align=left|natively in дь and нь (see above); otherwise only in [[Russian language|Russian]] loanwords || ’ or j |- |Э э || э || {{IPA|/e/}} || || E e |- |Ю ю || ю || {{IPA|/ju/}} || align=left|found only in [[Russian language|Russian]] loanwords || Jú jú |- |Я я || я || {{IPA|/ja/}} || align=left|found only in [[Russian language|Russian]] loanwords || Já já |} --> ==Grammar== ===Syntax=== The typical word order can be summarized as [[subject (grammar)|subject]] – [[adverb]] – [[object (grammar)|object]] – [[verb]]; [[Possession (linguistics)|possessor]] – [[Possession (linguistics)|possessed]]; [[adjective]] – [[noun]]. ===Pronouns=== Personal pronouns in Yakut distinguish between first, second, and third persons and singular and plural number. {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=2 | ! Singular ! Plural |- ! colspan=2 | 1st person | {{lang|sah|мин}} ({{transl|sah|min}}) | {{lang|sah|биһиги}} ({{transl|sah|bihigi}}) |- ! colspan=2 | 2nd person | {{lang|sah|эн}} ({{transl|sah|en}}) | {{lang|sah|эһиги}} ({{transl|sah|ehigi}}) |- ! rowspan=2 | 3rd person !<small>human</small> | {{lang|sah|кини{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Cognate with [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''kendi'' (self)}}}} ({{transl|sah|kini}}) | {{lang|sah|кинилэр}} ({{transl|sah|kiniler}}) |- !<small>non-human</small> | {{lang|sah|ол}} ({{transl|sah|ol}}) | {{lang|sah|олор}} ({{transl|sah|olor}}) |} {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} Although nouns have no [[grammatical gender|gender]], the [[pronoun]] system [[Animacy|distinguishes]] between human and non-human in the third person, using {{lang|sah|кини}} ({{transl|sah|kini}}, 'he/she') to refer to human beings and {{lang|sah|ол}} ({{transl|sah|ol}}, 'it') to refer to all other things.<ref>{{cite book | author=Kirişçioğlu, M. Fatih | title=Saha (Yakut) Türkçesi Grameri | location=Ankara | publisher=Türk Dil Kurumu | year=1999 |isbn=975-16-0587-3}}</ref> ===Grammatical number=== Nouns have plural and singular forms. The plural is formed with the suffix /-LAr/, which may surface as '''-лар''' (''-lar''), '''-лэр''' (''-ler''), '''-лөр''' (''-lör''), '''-лор''' (''-lor''), '''-тар''' (''-tar''), '''-тэр''' (''-ter''), '''-төр''' (''-tör''), '''-тор''' (''-tor''), '''-дар''' (''-dar''), '''-дэр''' (''-der''), '''-дөр''' (''-dör''), '''-дор''' (''-dor''), '''-нар''' (''-nar''), '''-нэр''' (''-ner''), '''-нөр''' (''-nör''), or '''{{nowrap|-нор}}''' (''{{nowrap|-nor}}''), depending on the preceding consonants and vowels. The plural is used only when referring to a number of things collectively, not when specifying an amount. Nouns have no [[grammatical gender|gender]]. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Final sound basics !! Plural affix options !! Examples |- | Vowels, {{IPA|/l/}} ||''-lar, -ler, -lor, -lör'' <!--''-лар'', ''-лэр'', ''-лор'', ''-лөр''--> || ''kïïllar'' 'beasts', ''eheler'' 'bears', ''oɣolor'' 'children', ''börölör'' 'wolves'<!--''Кыыллар'' (beasts), ''эһэлэр'' (bears), ''оҕолор'' (children), ''бөрөлөр'' (wolves)--> |- | {{IPA|/k, p, s, t, χ/}} || ''-tar, -ter, -tor, -tör''<!--''-тар'', ''-тэр'', ''-тор'', ''-төр''--> || ''attar'' 'horses', ''külükter'' 'shadows', ''ottor'', 'herbs', ''bölöxtör'' 'groups'<!--''Аттар'' (horses), ''күлүктэр'' (shadows), ''оттор'' (herbs), ''бөлөхтөр'' (groups)--> |- | {{IPA|/y, r/}} || ''-dar, -der, -dor, -dör''<!--''-дар'', ''-дэр'', ''-дор'', ''-дөр''--> || ''baaydar'' 'rich people', ''ederder'' 'young people'{{refn|group=lower-alpha|''baydar'' 'rich people' and ''ederder'' 'young' people are examples of predicative adjectives (i.e. ''baay'' 'rich', ''eder'' 'young') being pluralized}} ''xotoydor'' 'eagles', ''kötördör'' 'birds'<!--''Баайдар'' (rich people), ''эдэрдэр'' (young people),{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Adjectives can also be nouns. So, for example, '''улахан''' is ''big'' (something/someone) and '''улаханнар''' is ''bigs'' (something/someones) or correctly ''they are big''.}} ''хотойдор'' (eagles), ''көтөрдөр'' (birds)--> |- | {{IPA|/m, n, ŋ/}}<!--''м'', ''н'', ''ҥ''--> ||''-nar, -ner, -nor, -nör'' <!--''-нар'', ''-нэр'', ''-нор'', ''-нөр''--> || ''kïïmnar'' 'sparks', ''ilimner'' 'fishing nets', ''oronnor'' 'beds', ''bödöŋnör'' 'large ones'<!--''Кыымнар'' (sparks), ''илимнэр'' (fishing nets), ''ороннор'' (beds), ''бөдөҥнөр'' (they're large){{refn|group=lower-alpha|There are exceptions: ''уол'' (boy) — ''уол'''аттар''''' (boys) and ''кыыс'' (girl) — ''кыр'''гыттар''''' (girls).}}--> |} {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} There is a handful of irregular plural nouns, e.g. *'''{{lang|sah|уол}}''' ({{transl|sah|uol}}) 'boy; son' > '''{{lang|sah|уолаттар}}''' ({{transl|sah|uolattar}}), *'''{{lang|sah|эр}}''' 'man' > '''эрэттэр''' or folkloric '''эрэн''' (cf. Uzbek folkloric ''{{lang|uz|eran}}'') *'''{{lang|sah|хотун}}''' 'noblewoman' > '''{{lang|sah|хотуттар}}''' or '''хотут''' *'''{{lang|sah|тойон}}''' 'commander' > '''{{lang|sah|тойоттор}}''' or '''{{lang|sah|тойот}}''' * '''{{lang|sah|оҕонньор}}''' 'old man, husband' > '''оҕонньоттор''' * '''кэм''' 'time' > '''кэммит''' *'''{{lang|sah|кыыс}}''' ({{transl|sah|kïïs}}) 'girl; daughter' > '''{{lang|sah|кыргыттар}}''' ({{transl|sah|kïrgïttar}}). The last word, ''кыргыттар'', disregarding the composite ''{{nowrap|-(ы)ттар}}'' plural suffix, has cognates in numerous Turkic languages, such as [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] (''{{lang|uz|qirqin}}'' 'bondwoman'), [[Bashkir language|Bashkir]], Tatar, Kyrgyz (''кыз-кыркын'' 'girls'), Chuvash (''{{lang|cv|хӑрхӑм}}''), Turkmen (''gyrnak'') and extinct Qarakhanid, Khwarezmian and Chaghatay. ===Cases=== Only Sakha (Yakut) has a rich case system that differs markedly from all the other [[Siberian Turkic languages]]. It has retained the ancient comitative case from [[Old Turkic]] (due to strong influence from [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]) while in other [[Turkic languages]], the old comitative has become an instrumental case. However, in Sakha language the Old Turkic locative case has come to denote partitive case, thus leaving no case form for the function of locative. Instead, locative, dative and allative cases are realized through Common Turkic dative suffix. Furthermore, (in addition to locative,) genitive and [[Equative case|equative]] cases are lost as well. Yakut has eight [[grammatical case]]s: [[Nominative case|nominative]] (unmarked), [[Accusative case|accusative]] ''-(n)I'', [[Dative case|dative]] ''-GA'', [[Partitive case|partitive]] ''-TA'', [[Ablative case|ablative]] ''-(t)tan'', [[Instrumental case|instrumental]] ''-(I)nAn'', [[Comitative case|comitative]] ''-LIIn'', and [[Comparative case|comparative]] ''-TAAɣAr''.<ref>{{harvnb|Krueger|1962}}; {{harvnb|Stachowski|Menz|1998}}; {{harvnb|Vinokurova|2005}}</ref> Examples of these are shown in the following table for a vowel-final stem {{transl|sah|eye}} (of Mongolian origin) 'peace' and a consonant-final stem {{transl|sah|uot}} 'fire': {|class="wikitable" ! ! {{transl|sah|eye}} 'peace' ! {{transl|sah|uot}} 'fire' |- ! Nominative | {{transl|sah|eye}} | {{transl|sah|uot}} |- ! Accusative | {{transl|sah|eye'''ni'''}} | {{transl|sah|uot'''u'''}} |- ! Dative | {{transl|sah|eye'''ɣe'''}} | {{transl|sah|uok'''ka'''}} |- ! Partitive{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Sakha partitive suffix is believed by some linguists to be an innovation stemming from the influence of Evenki which led the Old Turkic locative suffix to assume partitive function in Sakha; no other Turkic language has partitive suffix save for [[Khalaj language|Khalaj]] and (nearly-extinct) [[Tofa language|Tofa]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVA3biex3FMC&dq=khalaj+partitive&pg=PA205|title=Argument Structure and Grammatical Relations|page=205|isbn=9789027274717 |last1=Suihkonen |first1=Pirkko |last2=Comrie |first2=Bernard |last3=Solovyev |first3=Valery |date=18 July 2012 |publisher=John Benjamins }}</ref> Sakha partitive is similar to the corresponding [[Finnish language|Finnish]] partitive case.<ref>{{cite book|title=Syntactic architecture and its consequences III|page=54|isbn=9783985540044 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=xn8wEAAAQBAJ&dq=partitive+sakha&pg=PA53 |last1=Bárány |first1=András |last2=Biberauer |first2=Theresa |last3=Douglas |first3=Jamie |last4=Vikner |first4=Sten |date=28 May 2021 |publisher=BoD – Books on Demand }}</ref>}} | {{transl|sah|eye'''te'''}} | {{transl|sah|uot'''ta'''}} |- ! Ablative{{refn|group=lower-alpha|The Ablative suffix appears as ''-TAn'' following a consonant and ''-TTAn'' following a vowel. Clear examples of the former are {{transl|sah|ox}} 'arrow' → {{transl|sah|ox'''ton'''}} 'from an/the arrow', {{transl|sah|oxtor'''ton'''}} 'from (the) arrows'.}} | {{transl|sah|eye'''tten'''}} | {{transl|sah|uot'''tan'''}} |- ! Instrumental | {{transl|sah|eye'''nen'''}} | {{transl|sah|uot'''unan'''}} |- ! Comitative | {{transl|sah|eye'''liin'''}} | {{transl|sah|uot'''tuun'''}} |- ! Comparative | {{transl|sah|eye'''teeɣer'''}} | {{transl|sah|uot'''taaɣar'''}} |} {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} The partitive object case indicates that just a part of an object is affected, e.g.: {{Interlinear|lang=sah|indent=2 | Uː-'''ta''' is! | water-PTV drink-IMP.2SG | Drink '''some''' water! }} The corresponding expression below with the object in the accusative denotes wholeness: {{Interlinear|lang=sah|indent=2 | Uː-'''nu''' is! | water-ACC. drink-IMP.2SG | Drink '''[all]''' the water! }} The partitive is only used in imperative or necessitative expressions, e.g. {{Interlinear|lang=sah|indent=2 | Uː-ta a-γal-ϊaχ-χa naːda. | water-PT bring-PRO-DAT necessary. | One has to bring some water. }} Note the word naːda is borrowed from Russian надо (must). A notable detail about Yakut case is the absence of the [[Genitive case|genitive]],{{sfnm|1a1=Krueger|1y=1962|2a1=Stachowski|2a2=Menz|2y=1998|3a1=Baker|3a2=Vinokurova|3y=2010|4a1=Johanson|4y=2021}} a feature which some argue is due to historical contact with [[Evenki language|Evenki]] (a [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic language]]), the language with which Sakha (i.e. Yakut) was in most intensive contact.{{sfn|Pakendorf|2007}} Possessors are unmarked, with the possessive relationship only being realized on the possessed noun itself either through the [[possessive suffix]]{{sfn|Baker|Vinokurova|2010}} (if the subject is a pronoun) or through partitive case suffix (if the subject is any other nominal). For example, in (a) the first-person pronoun subjects are not marked for genitive case; neither do full nominal subjects (possessors) receive any marking, as shown in (b): {{Interlinear|lang=sah|number=a. |min oɣo-m / bihigi oɣo-but |1SG.NOM child-POSS.1SG / 1PL.NOM child-POSS.1PL | 'my son' / 'our child' }} {{Interlinear|lang=sah|number=b. | Masha aɣa-ta | Masha.NOM father-PTV.3SG | 'Masha's father' }} ===Questions=== The Sakha yes–no question marker is enclitic ''duo'' or ''du:'', whereas almost all other Turkic languages use markers of the type ''-mI'', compare: {{fs interlinear|lang=sah|indent=2 | Күөрэгэй ырыатын истэҕин '''дуо'''? | kyœregej ïrïa-tï-n ist-e-ɣin {{=}}'''duo'''? | lark-NOM song-3SG.POSS-ACC hear-PRS-2SG {{=}}Q | Do you hear the song of larks? }} and the same sentence in [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] (note the question suffix '''-mi''' in contrast to Sakha): {{interlinear|lang=uzb|indent=2 | ''To’rg’ay jirini eshit(a)yapsan'''mi'''?'' }} Question words in Yakut remain in-situ; they do not [[Wh-movement|move]] to the front of the sentence. Sample question words include: {{lang|sah|туох}} ({{transl|sah|tuox}}) 'what', {{lang|sah|ким}} ({{transl|sah|kim}}) 'who', {{lang|sah|хайдах}} ({{transl|sah|xajdax}}) 'how', {{lang|sah|хас}} ({{transl|sah|xas}}) 'how much; how many', {{lang|sah|ханна}} ({{transl|sah|xanna}}) 'where', and {{lang|sah|ханнык}} ({{transl|sah|xannïk}}) 'which'. ==Vocabulary== Sakha has a large number of Mongolian loanwords, representing around 13% of its vocabulary (including terms pertaining to kinship and body parts). Despite the close contact with [[Evenki language|Evenki]], Sakha has quite a small number of loanwords from that language. {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan="2"| Yakut ! colspan="2"|[[Tuvan language|Tuvan]] ! rowspan="2"|[[Turkish language|Turkish]] ! rowspan="2"|[[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] ! rowspan="2"| English ! rowspan="2"|[[Classical Mongolian language|Classical Mongolian]] |- ! Cyrillic ! Latin ! Cyrillic ! Latin |- |аччыктааһын |aččïktahïn | аштаар | aštaar |açlık |ochlik |hunger |ölüsgüleŋ ᠥᠯᠥᠰᠬᠦᠯᠡᠩ |- |аччык |aččïk | аш | aš |aç |och |hungry |<!--өлссөн / ölssön--> |- |аат |aat | ат | at |ad |ot |name |<!--нэр / ner--> |- |балык |balïk |балык |balïk |balık |baliq |fish | |- |балыксыт |balïksït | балыкчы | balïkčï |balıkçı |baliqchi |fisherman |jiğasuçi ᠵᠢᠭᠠᠰᠤᠴᠢ |- |yy |uu |суг | sug |su |suv |water |usu ᠤᠰᠤ |- |тимир |timir |демир |demir |demir |temir |iron |temür ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠷ |- |күөл |küöl |хөл |khöl |göl |ko‘l |lake |na'ur ᠨᠠᠭᠤᠷ |- |атах |atax | |adaḳ |ayak |oyoq |foot | |- |мурун |murun |думчук |dumčuk |burun |burun |nose | |- |баттах |battax |дүк | dük |saç |soch |hair |üsü ᠦᠰᠦ |- |илии |ilii |хол |khol |el |qo‘l |hand | |- |күн |kün |хүн |khün |gün |kun |day, sun | |- |муус |muus |дош |doš |buz |muz |ice |mösü ᠮᠥᠰᠥ |- |ыт |ït |ыт |ït |it |it |dog | |- |сүрэх |sürex |чүрек |čürek |yürek |yurak |heart |jirüke ᠵᠢᠷᠦᠬᠡ |- |сарсын |sarsïn |даарта, <br>эртен | daarta,<br>erten |yarın |ertaga |tomorrow | |- |бүгүн |bügün |бөгүн |bögün |bugün |bugun |today | |- |былыт |bïlït |булут |bulut |bulut |bulut |cloud | |- |хаар |xaar |хар |khar |kar |qor |snow | |- |хаан |xaan |хан | khan |kan |qon |blood | |- |эт |et |эът |èt |et |et |meat | |- |тиис |tiis |диш |tiš |diş |tish |tooth | |- |ат |at |аът |àt |at |ot |horse | |- |таас |taas |даш |daš |taş |tosh |stone | |- |үүт |üüt |сүт |süt |süt |sut |milk |sün ᠰᠦᠨ |- |ынах |ïnax |инек |inek |inek |inak/sigir |cow | |- |хара |xara |кара |kara |kara |qora |black |qar-a ᠬᠠᠷ᠎ᠠ |- |сыттык |sïttïk |сыртык |sïrtïk |yastık |yostiq |pillow | |- |быһах |bïhax | бижек | bižek |bıçak |pichoq |knife | |- |бытык |bïtïk | | |bıyık |mo‘ylov |mustache | |- |кыс, кыһын |kïs, kïhïn |кыш |kïš |kış, kışın |qish |winter | |- |туус |tuus |дус |dus |tuz |tuz |salt | |- |тыл |tïl |дыл |dïl |dil |til |tongue, language |kele ᠬᠡᠯᠡ |- |cаха тылa |saxa tïla |Саха дыл,<br>Якут дыл |Sakha dïl,<br>Yakut dïl |saha dili,<br> sahaca |yoqut tili,<br> yoqutcha |Yakut language | |- |кыыс |kïïs |кыс |kïs |kız |qiz |girl, daughter | |- |уол |uol |оол,<br>оглу |ool,<br>oglu |oğul,<br> oğlan |o‘g‘il |son, boy | |- |үөрэтээччи |üöreteečči |башкы | baškï |öğretici,<br> öğretmen |o‘qituvchi |teacher | |- |үөрэнээччи |üöreneečči |өөреникчи |öörenikči |öğrenci,<br>talebe |o‘quvchi,<br> talaba |student | |- |уһун |uhun |узун |uzun |uzun |uzun |long, tall | |- |кулгаах |kulgaax |кулак |kulak |kulak |quloq |ear | |- |сыл |sïl |чыл,<br>хар |čïl,<br>khar |yıl |yil |year |jil ᠵᠢᠯ |- |киһи |kihi |кижи |kiži |kişi |kishi |human, man |kümün ᠬᠥᠮᠦᠨ |- |суол |suol |орук |oruk |yol |yo‘l |road, way | |- |асчыт |asčït |белеткээр |beletkeer |aşçı |oshchi, oshpaz |cook | |- |тараах |taraax |дыргак |dïrgak |tarak |taroq |comb | |- |орто |orto |орта |orta |orta |o‘rta |middle | |- |күн ортото |kün ortoto |дүш, дүъш,<br>дүъште |düš, dǜš,<br>dǜšte |gün ortası |kun o‘rtasi, tush |midday, noon | |- |күл |kül |хүлүмзүрүүр |khülümzürüür |gülmek |kulmoq |to laugh; to smile | |- |өл |öl |өлүр |ölür |ölmek |o‘lmoq |to die | |- |ис |is |ижер |ižer |içmek |ichmoq |to drink | |- |бил |bil |билир |bilir |bilmek |bilmoq |to know | |- |көр |kör |көөр (көр-) |köör (kör-) |görmek |ko‘rmoq |to see |qara ᠬᠠᠷᠠ |- |үөрэн |üören |өөренир | öörenir |öğrenmek |o‘rganmoq |to learn | |- |үөрэт |üöret |өөредир |ööredir |öğretmek |o‘rgatmoq |to teach | |- |ытыр |ïtïr |ызырар |ïzïrar |ısırmak |tishlamoq |to bite | |- |хас |xas |казар |kazar |kazmak |qozmoq,<br>qazmoq |to dig | |- |тик |tik |даараар |daaraar |dikiş dikmek,<br> dikmek |tikmoq |to sew | |- |кэл |kel |келир |kelir |gelmek |kelmoq |to come | |- |салаа |salaa |чылгаар |čïlgaar |yalamak |yalamoq |to lick | |- |тараа |taraa | | |taramak |taramoq |to comb | |- |биэр |bier |бээр |beer |vermek |bermoq |to give | |- |бул |bul |тывар |tïvar |bulmak |topmoq |to find | |- |диэ |die | дe-, дi- | de-, di- |demek |demoq,<br> aytmoq |to say | |- |киир |kiir |кирер |kirer |girmek |kirmoq |to enter | |- |иһит |ihit |дыңнаар | dïŋnaar |işitmek |eshitmoq, tinglamoq |to hear | |- |ас |as |ажар |ažar |açmak |ochmoq |to open | |- |тут |tut |тудар |tudar |tutmak |tutmoq |to hold | |- |ый |ïy |ай |ay |ay |oy |moon | |- |ыйытыы |ïyïtïï |айтырыг |aytïrïg |soru |savol |question | |- |кыайыы |kïayïï |тиилелге |tiilelge |zafer |g‘alaba |victory | |} <!-- Old version of this table... there is no reason for two Oghuz languages... {| class="wikitable" |- !Yakut (Cyrillic) !Yakut (Transliteration) ![[Turkish language|Turkish]] [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] ![[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] ![[English language|English]] !Mongolian (Cyrillic) /Mongolian (Transliteration) |- |аччыктааһын |aččïktahïn |açlık |aclıq |ochlik |hunger |өлсгөлөн / ölsgölön |- |аччык |aččïk |aç |ac |och |hungry |өлссөн / ölssön |- |аат |aat |ad |ad |ot |name |нэр / ner |- |балык |balïk |balık |balıq |baliq |fish | |- |балыксыт |balïksït |balıkçı |balıqçı |baliqchi |fisherman |загасчин / zagaschin |- |yy |uu |su |su |suv |water |ус /us |- |тимир |timir |demir |dəmir |temir |iron |төмөр /tömör |- |күөл |küöl |göl |göl |ko‘l |lake |нуур /nuur |- |атах |atax |ayak |ayaq |oyoq |foot | |- |мурун |murun |burun |burun |burun |nose | |- |баттах |battax |saç |saç |soch |hair |үс /üs |- |илии |ilii |el |əl |qo‘l |hand | |- |күн |kün |gün |gün |kun |day, sun | |- |муус |muus |buz |buz |muz |ice |мөс /mös |- |ыт |ït |it |it |it |dog | |- |сүрэх |sürex |yürek |ürək |yurak |heart |зүрх /zürx |- |сарсын |sarsïn |yarın |sabah |ertaga |tomorrow | |- |бүгүн |bügün |bugün |bugün |bugun |today | |- |былыт |bïlït |bulut |bulud |bulut |cloud | |- |хаар |xaar |kar |qar |qor |snow | |- |хаан |xaan |kan |qan |qon |blood | |- |эт |et |et |ət |et |meat | |- |тиис |tiis |diş |diş |tish |tooth | |- |ат |at |at |at |ot |horse | |- |таас |taas |taş |daş |tosh |stone | |- |үүт |üüt |süt |süd |sut |milk |сүү /süü |- |ынах |ïnax |inek |inək |inak/sigir |cow |үнээ /ünee |- |хара |xara |kara |qara |qora |black |хар / xar |- |сыттык |sïttïk |yastık |yastıq |yostiq |pillow | |- |быһах |bïhax |bıçak |bıçaq |pichoq |knife | |- |бытык |bïtïk |bıyık |bığ |mo‘ylov |mustache | |- |кыс, кыһын |kïs, kïhïn |kış, kışın |qış, qışın |qish |winter | |- |туус |tuus |tuz |duz |tuz |salt | |- |тыл |tïl |dil |dil |til |tongue, language |хэл /xel |- |cаха тылa |saxa tïla |saha dili, sahaca |saxa dili, saxaca |yoqut tili, yoqutcha |Yakut language |Якут хэл / Yakut khel |- |кыыс |kïïs |kız |qız |qiz |girl, daughter | |- |уол |uol |oğul, oğlan |oğul, oğlan |o‘g‘il |son, boy | |- |үөрэтээччи |üöreteečči |öğretici, öğretmen |müəllim |o‘qituvchi |teacher | |- |үөрэнээччи |üöreneečči |öğrenci,talebe |şagird, tələbə |o‘quvchi, talaba |student | |- |уһун |uhun |uzun |uzun |uzun |long, tall | |- |кулгаах |kulgaax |kulak |qulaq |quloq |ear | |- |сыл |sïl |yıl |il |yil |year |жил /jil |- |киһи |kihi |kişi |insan, kişi |kishi |human, man |хүн /hün |- |суол |suol |yol |yol |yo‘l |road, way | |- |асчыт |asčït |aşçı |aşbaz |oshchi, oshpaz |cook | |- |тараах |taraax |tarak |daraq |taroq |comb | |- |орто |orto |orta |orta |o‘rta |middle | |- |күн ортото |kün ortoto |gün ortası |günorta |kun o‘rtasi |midday, noon | |- |күл |kül |gülmek |gülmək |kulmoq |to laugh | |- |өл |öl |ölmek |ölmək |o‘lmoq |to die | |- |ис |is |içmek |içmək |ichmoq |to drink | |- |бил |bil |bilmek |bilmək |bilmoq |to know | |- |көр |kör |görmek |görmək |ko‘rmoq |to see |хар /xar |- |үөрэн |üören |öğrenmek |öyrənmək |o‘rganmoq |to learn | |- |үөрэт |üöret |öğretmek |öyrətmək |o‘rgatmoq |to teach | |- |ытыр |ïtïr |ısırmak |dişləmək |tishlamoq |to bite | |- |хас |xas |kazmak |qazmaq |qozmoq,qazmoq |to dig | |- |тик |tik |dikiş dikmek, dikmek |tikiş, tikmək |tikmoq |to sew | |- |кэл |kel |gelmek |gəlmək |kelmoq |to come | |- |салаа |salaa |yalamak |yalamaq |yalamoq |to lick | |- |тараа |taraa |taramak |daramaq |taramoq |to comb | |- |биэр |bier |vermek |vermək |bermoq |to give | |- |бул |bul |bulmak |tapmaq |topmoq |to find | |- |диэ |die |demek |demək |demoq, aytmoq |to say | |- |киир |kiir |girmek |girmək |kirmoq |to enter | |- |иһит |ihit |işitmek |eşitmək |eshitmoq |to hear | |- |ас |as |açmak |açmaq |ochmoq |to open | |- |тут |tut |tutmak |tutmaq |tutmoq |to hold | |- |ый |ïy |ay |ay |oy |moon | |- |ыйытыы |ïyïtïï |soru |sual |savol |question | |- |кыайыы |kïayïï |zafer |qələbə |g‘alaba |victory | |}--> ===Numerals=== {| class="wikitable" |- ![[Old Turkic]] ![[Turkish language|Turkish]] ![[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] ! [[Tuvan language|Tuvan]] !Yakut ![[English language|English]] |- |bir |bir |bir |bir |biir |one |- |eki |iki |ikki | iyi |ikki |two |- |üç |üç |uch | üş |üs |three |- |tört |dört |tŏrt |dört |tüört |four |- |beş |beş |besh |beş |bies |five |- |altı |altı |olti |aldı |alta |six |- |yeti |yedi |yetti |çedi |sette |seven |- |sekiz |sekiz |sakkiz |ses |aɣïs |eight |- |tokuz |dokuz |tŏqqiz |tos |toɣus |nine |- |on |on |ŏn |on |uon |ten |} ==Oral and written literature== The Yakut have a tradition of oral epic in their language called Олоҥхо ("[[Olonkho]]"), traditionally performed by skilled performers. The subject matter is based on Yakut mythology and legends. Versions of many Olonkho poems have been written down and translated since the 19th century, but only a very few older performers of the oral Olonkho tradition are still alive. They have begun a program to teach young people to sing this in their language and revive it, though in a modified form.<ref>Robin Harris. 2012. ''Sitting "under the mouth": decline and revitalization in the Sakha epic tradition "Olonkho"''. Doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia.</ref> The first printing in Yakut was a part of a book by [[Nicolaas Witsen]] published in 1692 in [[Amsterdam]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sakhamemory.ru/ShowArticle.aspx?ArticleID=6&CategoryID=54|title=Предпосылки возникновения якутской книги|publisher=Память Якутии|access-date=2014-10-29}}</ref> In 2005, Marianne Beerle-Moor, director of the [[Institute for Bible Translation|Institute for Bible Translation, Russia/CIS]], was awarded the Order of Civil Valour by the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) for the translation of the [[New Testament]] into Yakut.<ref>{{cite web |title=People |url=http://ibtrussia.org/en/persons |publisher=[[Institute for Bible Translation|Institute for Bible Translation, Russia/CIS]] |access-date=5 October 2016}}</ref> Probably the first-ever Islamic book written in Sakha language was published in 2012 entitled "Билсин: Ислам" ("Get to know: Islam").<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dumrf.ru/common/regnews/4355?ysclid=lt1uci4ram439953413 | title=В Якутии издали книгу об исламе на языке саха }}</ref> == Examples == Article 1 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights (with footnotes on etymologies of some words): {| class="wikitable" |- | Novgorodov's alphabet 1920–1929. ([[Latin alphabet]]/[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]) | {{lang|sah-Latn|зɔn barɯta beje sꭣltatɯgar ꭣnna bɯra:bɯgar teŋ bꭣlan tꭢry:ller. kiniler<br /> barɯ ꭢrkꭢ:n ꭢjdꭢ:q, sꭣbasta:q bꭣlan tꭢry:ller, ꭣnna beje bejeleriger <br />tɯlga ki:riniges bɯhɯ:lara dɔʃɔrdɔhu: tɯ:nna:q bꭣlꭣqta:q.}} |- | [[Latin alphabet]] 1929–1939. ([[Yañalif]]) | {{lang|sah-Latn|Çon вarьta вeje suoltatьgar uonna вьraaвьgar teꞑ вuolan tɵryyller. Kiniler вarь ɵrkɵn ɵjdɵɵq, suoвastaaq вuolan tɵryyller, uonna вeje вejeleriger tьlga kiiriniges вьhььlara doƣordohuu tььnnaaq вuoluoqtaaq.}} |- | Modern [[Cyrillic]] 1939–present. | {{lang|sah-Cyrl|Дьон{{refn|group=lower-alpha|Borrowed from Mongolian зон}} барыта бэйэ суолтатыгар уонна быраабыгар{{refn|group=lower-alpha|The root of the word, быраап, is derived from Russian право}} тэҥ буолан төрүүллэр. Кинилэр бары өркөн өйдөөх, суобастаах{{refn|group=lower-alpha|The root of this loanword, суобас, is from Russian совесть - conscience.}} буолан төрүүллэр, уонна бэйэ бэйэлэригэр тылга кииринигэс быһыылара доҕордоһуу{{refn|group=lower-alpha|From ''доҕор'' 'friend', of Mongolic origin.}} тыыннаах буолуохтаах.}} |- | Romanization | {{transl|sah|J̌on barïta beye suoltatïgar uonna bïraabïgar teŋ buolan törüüller. Kiniler barï örkön öydööx, suobastaax buolan törüüller, uonna beye beyeleriger tïlga kiiriniges bïsïïlara doɣordohuu tïïnnax buoluoxtaax.}} |- | English | All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. |} {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} ==See also== {{Portal|Russia|Languages}} *[[Yakuts]] *[[Dolgan language]] *[[Semyon Novgorodov]] – the inventor of the first [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]-based Yakut alphabet ==References== {{reflist}} ==Bibliography== * {{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=Gregory D. S. |year=1998 |title=Historical Aspects of Yakut (Saxa) Phonology |journal=Turkic Languages |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=1–32}} * {{Cite book |last=Antonov |first=N. K. |title=Yazyki mira (seriya knig) |publisher=Indrik (izdatelstvo) |year=1997 |isbn=5-85759-061-2 |editor-last=Tenshev |editor-first=E. R. |pages=513–524 |lang=ru}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Baker |first1=Mark C |last2=Vinokurova |first2=Nadya |year=2010 |title=Two modalities of case assignment: case in Sakha |journal=Natural Language and Linguistic Theory |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=593–642|doi=10.1007/s11049-010-9105-1 |s2cid=18614663 }} * {{Cite book |last=Forsyth |first=James |title=A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581-1990 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521477710}} * {{Cite book |last=Johanson |first=Lars |title=Turkic |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2021 |location=Cambridge |pages=20, 24}} * {{Cite book |last=Kharitonov |first=L. N. |title=Samouchitel' jakutskogo jazyka |publisher=Jakutskoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo |year=1947 |lang=ru}} * {{Cite book |last=Kirişçioğlu |first=M. Fatih |title=Saha (Yakut) Türkçesi Grameri |publisher=Türk Dil Kurumu |year=1999 |isbn=975-16-0587-3 |location=Ankara |lang=tr}} * {{Cite book |last=Krueger |first=John R. |title=Yakut Manual |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1962 |location=Bloomington}} * {{Cite book |last1=Menz |first1=Astrid |title=The Turkic Languages |edition=Second |last2=Monastyrev |first2=Vladimir |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-415-73856-9 |editor-last=Johanson |editor-first=Lars |pages=444–59 |chapter=Yakut |doi=10.4324/9781003243809 |editor-last2=Csató |editor-first2=Éva Á. |s2cid=243795171}} * {{Cite book |last1=Robbeets |first1=Martine |title=The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages |last2=Savalyev |first2=Alexander |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |editor-last=Robbeets |editor-first=Martine |pages=lii-lxxxii |chapter=Romanization Conventions |editor-last2=Savalyev |editor-first2=Alexander}} * {{Cite thesis |last=Pakendorf |first=Brigitte |author-link=Brigitte Pakendorf|title=Contact in the prehistory of the Sakha (Yakuts): Linguistic and genetic perspectives |publisher=Universiteit Leiden |year=2007}} * {{Cite book |last1=Pakendorf |first1=Brigitte |title=The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages |last2=Stapert |first2=Eugénie |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-880462-8 |editor-last=Robbeets |editor-first=Martine |pages=430–45 |chapter=Sakha and Dolgan, the North Siberian Turkic Languages |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198804628.003.0027 |editor-last2=Savalyev |editor-first2=Alexander}} * {{Cite thesis |last=Petrova |first=Nyurguyana |title=Lexicon and Clause-Linkage Properties of the Converbal Constructions in Sakha (Yakut) |publisher=University of Buffalo |year=2011}} * {{Cite book |last1=Stachowski |first1=Marek |title=The Turkic Languages |last2=Menz |first2=Astrid |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |editor-last=Johanson |editor-first=Lars |chapter=Yakut |editor-last2=Csató |editor-first2=Éva Á.}} <!--* {{Cite book |last=Ubrjatova |first=E.I. |publisher=?? |year=1960 |location=Moscow}}--> * {{Cite book |title=Grammatika sovremennogo jakutskogo literaturnogo jazyka |publisher=Nauka |year=1980 |editor-last=Ubryatova |editor-first=E.I. |location=Moscow}} * {{Cite thesis |last=Vinokurova |first=Nadezhda |title=Lexical Categories and Argument Structure: A study with reference to Sakha |publisher=Universiteit Utrecht |year=2005}} ==External links== {{Sister project links |auto=1 |wikt=Category:Yakut language |commons=Category:Sakha language |b=The Sakha language |voy=Sakha phrasebook |d=Q34299 |s=sah: |q=sah: |iw=sah }} {{incubator|sah|wiktionary}} {{incubator|sah|wikinews}} ===Language-related=== *[http://wold.clld.org/vocabulary/19 Yakut Vocabulary List] (from the World Loanword Database) *[http://sakha.yakut.iakoute.free.fr/index_uk.php Yakut thematic vocabulary lists] *[http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Yakut.html] *{{cite web| url=http://www.uni-bonn.de/~uzsylm/mongol/mongol_sakha.html| title=Comparison of Yakut and Mongolian vocabulary|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080205230834/https://www.uni-bonn.de/~uzsylm/mongol/mongol_sakha.html| archive-date=February 5, 2008}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080105123729/http://www.uni-bonn.de/~uzsylm/sakha/bib/ Yakut texts with Russian translations] in the [[Internet Archive]] – heroic poetry, fairy tales, legends, proverbs, etc. *[http://sakhalyy.helios-nw.ru/ Sakhalyy suruk] – Yakut Unicode fonts and Keyboard Layouts for PC *[http://sakhatyla.ru Sakhatyla.ru] – On-line Yakut–Russian, Russian–Yakut dictionary *[https://turkic.elegantlexicon.com/Sakha%20dictionary.pdf Yakut–English Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402213809/https://turkic.elegantlexicon.com/Sakha%20dictionary.pdf| date=April 2, 2022}} *[https://www.translitteration.com/transliteration/en/yakut/bgn-pcgn/ BGN/PCGN romanization tool for Yakut] *[http://doydu.sakhaopenworld.org/modules/debaser/genre.php?genreid=13 Sakha Open World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619045928/http://doydu.sakhaopenworld.org/modules/debaser/genre.php?genreid=13 |date=2006-06-19 }} – MP3's of Sakha Radio ===Content in Yakut=== *[http://doydu.sakhaopenworld.org/ Sakha Open World – Орто Дойду] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922080409/http://doydu.sakhaopenworld.org/ |date=2017-09-22 }} – A platform to promote the Yakut Language on the web; News, Lyrics, Music, Fonts, Forum, VideoNews (in Yakut, [[Unicode]]) *[http://www.baayaga.narod.ru Baayaga village website] – news and stories about and by the people of Baayaga (in Yakut) *[http://www.kyym.ru Kyym.ru] – site of Yakut newspaper *[https://www.youtube.com/c/NVKSAKHA НВК Саха (''NVK Sakha'')] Yakut language news channel on YouTube {{Turkic languages}} {{Languages of Russia}} {{Turkic topics}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Sakha language| ]] [[Category:Agglutinative languages]] [[Category:Siberian Turkic languages]] [[Category:Vowel-harmony languages]] [[Category:Languages of Russia]] [[Category:Turkic languages]]'