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Old page wikitext, before the edit ($1) (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Clade of seed plants that produce flowers}}
{{Redirect|Flowering Plants|the book by G. Ledyard Stebbins|Flowering Plants: Evolution Above the Species Level}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name =
| fossil_range = {{fossilrange|Valanginian|Recent|earliest=132|latest=0|Early Cretaceous ([[Valanginian]])-Recent}}
| image = {{Multiple image
|perrow = 2
|total_width = 270
|image1 = Ranunculus repens 1 (cropped).JPG
|caption1 = Terrestrial: [[Ranunculaceae|buttercup]]
|image2 = Nymphaea alba flower-and-leaves-DSC 3326w.jpg
|caption2 = Aquatic: [[Nymphaeaceae|water lily]]
|image3 = Meadow Foxtail head.jpg
|caption3 = Wind-pollinated: [[Poaceae|grass]]
|image4 = Apple blossom. Eastern Siberia.jpg
|caption4 = Insect-pollinated: [[Rosaceae|apple]]
|image5 = Quercus robur 4 RF (cropped).jpg
|caption5 = Tree: [[Quercus|oak]]
|image6 = Orchis simia Saarland 01.jpg
|caption6 = Forb: [[orchid]]
|border = infobox
|footer = Diversity of angiosperms
}}
| taxon = Angiosperms
| authority =
| subdivision_ranks = Groups (APG IV){{sfn|APG|2016}}
| subdivision = [[Basal angiosperms]]
* [[Amborellales]]
* [[Nymphaeales]]
* [[Austrobaileyales]]
[[Core angiosperms]]
*Clades
** [[Magnoliids]]
** [[Monocots]]
** [[Eudicots]]
*Orders
** [[Chloranthales]]
** [[Ceratophyllales]]
| synonyms = *Anthophyta <small>Cronquist</small>{{sfn|Cronquist|1960}}
* Angiospermae <small>[[John Lindley|Lindl.]]</small>
* Magnoliophyta <small>[[Arthur J. Cronquist|Cronquist]], [[Takht.]] & [[W.Zimm.]]</small><ref>{{Cite web |last= Reveal |first=James L. |date=2011 |orig-date=or later |title=Indices Nominum Supragenericorum Plantarum Vascularium – M |url=https://www.plantsystematics.org/reveal/pbio/fam/allspgfileM.html |access-date=28 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827073817/https://www.plantsystematics.org/reveal/pbio/fam/allspgfileM.html |archive-date=27 August 2013 }}</ref>
* Magnolicae <small>Takht.</small>{{sfn|Takhtajan|1964}}
}}
'''Flowering plants''' are [[plant]]s that bear [[flowers]] and [[fruit]]s, and form the clade '''Angiospermae''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|n|dʒ|i|ə|ˈ|s|p|ər|m|i:}}),<ref>{{cite book |last=Lindley |first=J. |year=1830 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/31944#page/21/mode/1up |title=Introduction to the Natural System of Botany |location=London |publisher=Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green |pages=xxxvi |no-pp=true |access-date=29 January 2018 |archive-date=27 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827171755/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/31944#page/21/mode/1up |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cantino |first1=Philip D. |last2=Doyle |first2=James A. |last3=Graham |first3=Sean W. |last4=Judd |first4=Walter S. |last5=Olmstead |first5=Richard G. |last6=Soltis |first6=Douglas E. |author-link6=Douglas E. Soltis |last7=Soltis |first7=Pamela S. |author-link7=Pamela S. Soltis |last8=Donoghue |first8=Michael J. |display-authors=3 |year=2007 |title= Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of ''Tracheophyta'' |journal=Taxon |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=E1–E44 |doi=10.2307/25065865|jstor=25065865 }}</ref> commonly called '''angiosperms'''. They include all [[forb]]s (flowering plants without a woody stem), [[grass]]es and grass-like plants, a vast majority of [[broad-leaved tree]]s, [[shrub]]s and [[vine]]s, and most [[aquatic plant]]s. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ἀγγεῖον / {{lang|grc-Latn|angeion}} ('container, vessel') and σπέρμα / {{lang|grc-Latn|sperma}} ('seed'), meaning that the [[seeds]] are enclosed within a fruit. They are by far the most diverse group of [[Embryophyte|land plants]] with 64 [[Order (biology)|orders]], 416 [[Family (biology)|families]], approximately 13,000 known [[Genus|genera]] and 300,000 known [[species]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Christenhusz |first1=M. J. M. |last2=Byng |first2=J. W. |year=2016 |title=The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase |journal=Phytotaxa |volume=261 |pages=201–217 |url=https://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598 |doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1 |issue=3 |doi-access=free |access-date=21 February 2022 |archive-date=6 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406045346/http://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598 |url-status=live }}</ref> Angiosperms were formerly called '''Magnoliophyta''' ({{IPAc-en|m|æ|g|ˌ|n|oʊ|l|i|ˈ|ɒ|f|ə|t|ə|,_|-|ə|ˈ|f|aɪ|t|ə}}).{{sfn|Takhtajan|1980}}
Angiosperms are distinguished from the other [[Spermatophyte|seed-producing]] plants, the [[gymnosperm]]s, by having [[flower]]s, [[xylem]] consisting of [[vessel element]]s instead of [[tracheids]], [[endosperm]] within their seeds, and fruits that completely envelop the seeds.
The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from the common ancestor of all living gymnosperms before the end of the [[Carboniferous]], over 300 million years ago. In the [[Cretaceous]], angiosperms [[Adaptive radiation|diversified explosively]], becoming the dominant group of plants across the planet.
[[Agriculture]] is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, and a small number of flowering plant families supply nearly all plant-based [[food]] and [[livestock]] feed. [[Rice]], [[maize]], and [[wheat]] provide half of the world's [[calorie]] intake, and all three plants are cereals from the [[Poaceae]] family (colloquially known as grasses). Other families provide materials such as [[wood]], [[paper]] and [[cotton]], and supply numerous ingredients for traditional and modern medicines. Flowering plants are also commonly grown for decorative purposes, with certain flowers playing a significant role in many cultures.
Out of the "Big Five" [[extinction event]]s in Earth's history, only the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]] had occurred while angiosperms dominated plant life on the planet. Today, the [[Holocene extinction]] affects all [[kingdoms of life|kingdoms of complex life]] on Earth, and conservation measures are necessary to protect plants in their habitats in the wild (''[[in situ]]''), or failing that, ''[[Ex situ conservation|ex situ]]'' in [[seed bank]]s or artificial habitats like [[botanic garden]]s. Otherwise, around 40% of plant species may become [[Extinction|extinct]] due to human actions such as [[habitat destruction]], introduction of [[invasive species]], unsustainable [[logging]] and collection of [[medicinal plants|medicinal]] or [[ornamental plant]]s. Further, [[climate change]] is [[Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity|starting to impact plants]] and is likely to cause many species to become extinct by 2100.
== Distinguishing features ==
Angiosperms are terrestrial vascular plants; like the gymnosperms, they have [[root]]s, [[plant stem|stems]], [[leaves]], and [[seed]]s. They differ from other [[Spermatophyte|seed plants]] in several ways.
{|class="wikitable"
! Feature !! Description !! Image
|-
|[[Flower]]s ||The [[reproductive organ]]s of flowering plants, not found in any other [[seed plants]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Angiosperms {{!}} OpenStax Biology 2e |url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/angiosperms/ |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=courses.lumenlearning.com |archive-date=19 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719225359/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/angiosperms/ |url-status=live}}</ref> || [[File:Daffodil flower in section, labelled.svg|thumb|none|A ''[[Narcissus (plant)|Narcissus]]'' flower in section. [[Petal]]s and [[sepal]]s are replaced here by a fused tube, the corona, and tepals.]]
|-
|Reduced [[Gametophyte#Seed plants|gametophytes]], three [[cell (biology)|cells]] in male, seven cells with eight nuclei in female (except for basal angiosperms)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=William E. |last2=Ryerson |first2=Kirsten C. |title=Reconstructing the ancestral female gametophyte of angiosperms: Insights from Amborella and other ancient lineages of flowering plants |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=96 |issue=1 |date=2009 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800311 |pages=129–143|pmid=21628180 }}</ref> ||The gametophytes are smaller than those of gymnosperms.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Raven, Peter H. |author2=Evert, Ray F. |author3=Eichhorn, Susan E. |title=Biology of Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0 |url-access=registration |year=2005 |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=978-0-7167-1007-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0/page/376 376]–}}</ref> The smaller size of the [[pollen]] reduces the time between pollination and [[fertilization]], which in gymnosperms is up to a year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Williams |first=Joseph H. |title=The evolution of pollen germination timing in flowering plants: Austrobaileya scandens (Austrobaileyaceae) |journal=AoB Plants |volume=2012 |pages=pls010 |date=2012 |pmid=22567221 |pmc=3345124 |doi=10.1093/aobpla/pls010 }}</ref>
|rowspan=2 | [[File:Angiosperm embryo sac with female gametophyte.JPG|thumb|none|[[Embryo sac]] is a reduced female [[gametophyte]].]]
|-
|[[Endosperm]] ||Endosperm forms after fertilization but before the [[zygote]] divides. It provides food for the developing [[embryo]], the [[cotyledon]]s, and sometimes the [[seedling]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baroux |first1=C. |last2=Spillane |first2=C. |last3=Grossniklaus |first3=U. |title=Evolutionary origins of the endosperm in flowering plants |journal=Genome Biology |volume=3 |article-number=reviews1026.1 |year=2002 |issue=9 |pages=reviews1026.1 |doi=10.1186/gb-2002-3-9-reviews1026 |pmid=12225592 |pmc=139410 |doi-access=free }}</ref> <!--cell/image shared with row above-->
|-
|Closed [[carpel]] enclosing the [[ovule]]s. ||Once the ovules are fertilised, the carpels, often with surrounding tissues, develop into fruits. Gymnosperms have unenclosed seeds.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gonçalves |first=Beatriz |title=Case not closed: the mystery of the origin of the carpel |journal=EvoDevo |volume=12 |issue=1 |date=2021-12-15 |page=14 |issn=2041-9139 |doi=10.1186/s13227-021-00184-z |pmid=34911578 |pmc=8672599 |doi-access=free }}</ref> || [[File:Alternating peas in peapod (cropped).jpg|thumb|none|Peas (seeds, from ovules) inside pod (fruit, from fertilised carpel).]]
|-
| [[Xylem]] made of [[vessel element]]s || Open vessel elements are stacked end to end to form continuous tubes, whereas gymnosperm xylem is made of tapered [[tracheids]] connected by small [[Pit (botany)|pits]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Baas | first=Pieter | title=New Perspectives in Wood Anatomy | chapter=Systematic, phylogenetic, and ecological wood anatomy — History and perspectives | series=Forestry Sciences | publisher=Springer Netherlands | publication-place=Dordrecht | year=1982 | volume=1 | isbn=978-90-481-8269-5 | issn=0924-5480 | doi=10.1007/978-94-017-2418-0_2 | pages=23–58}}</ref> || [[File:Herbaceous Dicot Stem Xylem Vessels Cucurbita (35463815631).jpg|thumb|none| [[Xylem]] vessels (long tubes).]]
|}
== Diversity ==
=== Ecological diversity ===
{{further|Plant ecology}}
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225px heights=225px caption="Largest and smallest">
File:MountainAshWithCars.jpg|''[[Eucalyptus regnans]]'',<br/>a tree almost 100 m tall
File:WolffiaArrhiza2.jpg|''[[Wolffia arrhiza]]'', a rootless floating freshwater plant under 2 mm across
</gallery>
The largest angiosperms are ''[[Eucalyptus]]'' gum trees of Australia, and ''[[Shorea faguetiana]]'', dipterocarp rainforest trees of Southeast Asia, both of which can reach almost {{convert|100|m|ft}} in height.<ref>{{cite web |title=Menara, yellow meranti, Shorea |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/572236-tallest-flowering-plant-angiosperm |website=Guinness World Records |date=6 January 2019 |access-date=8 May 2023 |quote=yellow meranti (''Shorea faguetiana'') ... 98.53 m (323 ft 3.1 in) tall ... swamp gum (''Eucalyptus regnans'') ... In 2014, it had a tape-drop height of 99.82 m (327 ft 5.9 in)}}</ref> The smallest are ''[[Wolffia]]'' duckweeds which float on freshwater, each plant less than {{convert|2|mm|in|2}} across.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-11-25 |title=The Charms of Duckweed |url=http://www.mobot.org/jwcross/duckweed/duckweed.htm |access-date=2022-07-05 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091125213317/http://www.mobot.org/jwcross/duckweed/duckweed.htm |archive-date=25 November 2009 }}</ref>
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225px heights=225px caption="Photosynthetic and parasitic">
File:Sunlight on a gunnera leaf, 'Quarry Garden', Belsay estate - geograph.org.uk - 1384733.jpg|''[[Gunnera]]'' captures sunlight for [[photosynthesis]] over the large surfaces of its leaves, which are supported by strong veins.
File:Orobanche purpurea.jpg|''[[Orobanche|Orobanche purpurea]]'', a [[Parasitism|parasitic]] broomrape with no leaves, obtains all its food from other plants.
</gallery>
Considering their method of obtaining energy, some 99% of flowering plants are [[photosynthetic]] [[autotroph]]s, deriving their energy from sunlight and using it to create molecules such as [[sugar]]s. The remainder are [[parasitic]], whether [[myco-heterotrophy|on fungi]] like the [[orchids]] for part or all of their life-cycle,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Leake |first=J.R. |year=1994 |title=The biology of myco-heterotrophic ('saprophytic') plants |journal=New Phytologist |volume=127 |issue=2 |pages=171–216 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.1994.tb04272.x |pmid=33874520 |s2cid=85142620 }}</ref> or [[Parasitic plant|on other plants]], either wholly like the broomrapes, ''[[Orobanche]]'', or partially like the witchweeds, ''[[Striga]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Westwood |first1=James H. |last2=Yoder |first2=John I. |last3=Timko |first3=Michael P. |last4=dePamphilis |first4=Claude W. |title=The evolution of parasitism in plants |journal=Trends in Plant Science |volume=15 |issue=4 |year=2010 |issn=1360-1385 |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2010.01.004 |pages=227–235|pmid=20153240 }}</ref>
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225px heights=225px caption="Hot, cold, wet, dry, fresh, salt">
File:Carnegiea gigantea Saguaro cactus plant (cropped).jpg|''[[Carnegiea gigantea]]'', the saguaro cactus, grows in hot dry [[desert]]s in Mexico and the southern United States.
File:Dryas octopetala (Colorado, USA).jpg|''[[Dryas octopetala]]'', the mountain avens, lives in cold arctic and montane habitats in the far north of America and Eurasia.
File:Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (47502598342).jpg|''[[Nelumbo nucifera]]'', the sacred lotus, grows in warm freshwater across tropical and subtropical Asia.
File:Zostera.jpg|''[[Zostera]]'' seagrass grows on the seabed in sheltered coastal waters.
</gallery>
In terms of their environment, flowering plants are cosmopolitan, occupying a wide range of [[habitat]]s on land, in fresh water and in the sea. On land, they are the dominant plant group in every habitat except for frigid moss-lichen [[tundra]] and [[coniferous forest]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Angiosperms |url=http://landau.faculty.unlv.edu//angiosperms.htm |publisher=University of Nevada, Las Vegas |access-date=6 May 2023}}</ref> The [[seagrass]]es in the [[Alismatales]] grow in marine environments, spreading with [[rhizome]]s that grow through the mud in sheltered coastal waters.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kendrick |first1=Gary A. |last2=Orth |first2=Robert J. |last3=Sinclair |first3=Elizabeth A. |last4=Statton |first4=John |title=Plant Regeneration from Seeds |chapter=Effect of climate change on regeneration of seagrasses from seeds |year=2022 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-823731-1.00011-1 |pages=275–283 |isbn=978-0-1282-3731-1 }}</ref>
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225px heights=225px caption="Acid, alkaline">
File:Drosera anglica ne2.jpg|''[[Drosera anglica]]'', a sundew, lives in nutrient-poor acid [[bog]]s, [[Carnivorous plant|deriving nutrients from trapped insects]].<ref name="Karlsson 1992"/>
File:Gentiana verna.jpg|''[[Gentiana verna]]'', the spring gentian, flourishes in dry limestone habitats.<ref name="Pardoe 1995"/>
</gallery>
Some specialised angiosperms are able to flourish in extremely acid or alkaline habitats. The [[sundew]]s, many of which live in nutrient-poor acid [[bog]]s, are [[carnivorous plant]]s, able to derive nutrients such as [[nitrate]] from the bodies of trapped insects.<ref name="Karlsson 1992">{{cite journal |last1=Karlsson |first1=P. S. |last2=Pate |first2=J. S. |title=Contrasting effects of supplementary feeding of insects or mineral nutrients on the growth and nitrogen and phosphorous economy of pygmy species of Drosera. |journal=Oecologia |date=1992 |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=8–13 |doi=10.1007/BF00317256 |pmid=28311806 |bibcode=1992Oecol..92....8K |s2cid=13038192 }}</ref> Other flowers such as ''[[Gentiana verna]]'', the spring gentian, are adapted to the alkaline conditions found on [[calcium]]-rich [[chalk]] and [[limestone]], which give rise to often dry [[Topography|topographies]] such as [[limestone pavement]].<ref name="Pardoe 1995">{{cite book |last=Pardoe |first=H. S. |title=Mountain Plants of the British Isles |year=1995 |publisher=[[Amgueddfa Cymru – Museum Wales|National Museum of Wales]] |page=24 |isbn=978-0-7200-0423-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bRHwm1F15S0C&pg=PA24}}</ref>
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225px heights=225px caption="Herbaceous, woody, climbing">
File:GT Herb Robert.jpg|''[[Geranium robertianum]]'', herb-Robert, is an annual or [[Biennial plant|biennial]] herb of Europe and North America.
File:Betula_pendula_001.jpg|''[[Betula pendula]]'', the silver birch, is a perennial [[deciduous]] tree of Eurasia.
File:Lianas.jpg|[[Liana]]s ''[[Austrosteenisia]]'', ''[[Parsonsia]]'', and ''[[Sarcopetalum]]'' climbing trees in Australia
</gallery>
As for their [[growth habit]], the flowering plants range from small, soft [[herbaceous plant]]s, often living as [[annual plant|annuals]] or [[biennials]] that set seed and die after one growing season,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hart |first1=Robin |title=Why are Biennials so Few? |journal=[[The American Naturalist]] |date=1977 |volume=111 |issue=980 |pages=792–799 |doi=10.1086/283209 |jstor=2460334 |s2cid=85343835 }}</ref> to large [[Perennial plant|perennial]] woody [[tree]]s that may live for many centuries and grow to many metres in height. Some species grow tall without being self-supporting like trees by [[climbing plant|climbing]] on other plants in the manner of [[vine]]s or [[liana]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rowe |first1=Nick |last2=Speck |first2=Thomas |title=Plant growth forms: an ecological and evolutionary perspective |journal=New Phytologist |volume=166 |issue=1 |date=2005-01-12 |issn=0028-646X |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01309.x |pages=61–72 |pmid=15760351 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Taxonomic diversity ===
The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thorne |first=R.F. |title=How many species of seed plants are there?|journal=Taxon|volume=51 |pages=511–522 |year=2002|doi=10.2307/1554864 |issue=3 |jstor=1554864}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scotland |first1=R. W. |last2=Wortley |first2=A. H. |title=How many species of seed plants are there? |journal=Taxon |volume=52 |pages=101–104|year=2003 |doi=10.2307/3647306 |issue=1 |jstor=3647306}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Govaerts |first=R. |title=How many species of seed plants are there? – a response |journal=Taxon |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=583–584 |year=2003 |doi=10.2307/3647457 |jstor=3647457|doi-access=free }}</ref> This compares to around 12,000 species of [[moss]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goffinet |first1=Bernard |last2=Buck |first2=William R. |year=2004 |title=Systematics of the Bryophyta (Mosses): From molecules to a revised classification |journal=Monographs in Systematic Botany |volume=98 |pages=205–239 }}</ref> and 11,000 species of [[Pteridophyta|pteridophytes]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Raven |first1=Peter H. |last2=Evert |first2=Ray F. |last3=Eichhorn |first3=Susan E. |date=2005 |title=Biology of Plants |edition=7th |location=New York |publisher=[[W. H. Freeman and Company]] |isbn=0-7167-1007-2 }}</ref> The [[APG system]] seeks to determine the number of [[family (biology)|families]], mostly by [[molecular phylogenetics]]. In the 2009 [[APG III]] there were 415 families.{{sfn|APG|2009}} The 2016 [[APG IV]] added five new orders (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), along with some new families, for a total of 64 angiosperm orders and 416 families.{{sfn|APG|2016}}
The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families. The 25 most species-rich of 443 families,<ref>{{cite web |last=Stevens |first=P. F. |year=2011 |url=https://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/welcome.html |title=Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (at Missouri Botanical Garden) |access-date=21 February 2022 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120065914/http://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/apweb/welcome.html |url-status=live}}</ref> containing over 166,000 species between them in their APG circumscriptions, are:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ The 25 largest angiosperm families
|-
! Group !! [[Family (biology)|Family]] !! English name !! No. of [[species|spp.]]
|-
| Eudicot || [[Asteraceae]] or Compositae || [[Bellis perennis|daisy]] || 22,750
|-
| Monocot || [[Orchidaceae]] || [[orchid]] || 21,950
|-
| Eudicot || [[Fabaceae]] or Leguminosae || [[pea]], [[legume]] || 19,400
|-
| Eudicot || [[Rubiaceae]] || [[Rubia|madder]] || 13,150 <ref>{{cite web|title=Kew Scientist 30|date=October 2006|url=https://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927005410/https://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf|archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref>
|-
| Monocot || [[Poaceae]] or Gramineae || [[grass]] || 10,035
|-
| Eudicot || [[Lamiaceae]] or Labiatae || [[mentha|mint]] || 7,175
|-
| Eudicot || [[Euphorbiaceae]] || [[spurge]] || 5,735
|-
| Eudicot || [[Melastomataceae]] || [[Melastoma|melastome]] || 5,005
|-
| Eudicot || [[Myrtaceae]] || [[Myrtus|myrtle]] || 4,625
|-
| Eudicot || [[Apocynaceae]] || [[dogbane]] || 4,555
|-
| Monocot || [[Cyperaceae]] || [[sedge]] || 4,350
|-
| Eudicot || [[Malvaceae]] || [[Malva|mallow]] || 4,225
|-
| Monocot || [[Araceae]] || [[arum]] || 4,025
|-
| Eudicot || [[Ericaceae]] || [[Erica (plant)|heath]] || 3,995
|-
| Eudicot || [[Gesneriaceae]] || [[gesneria]]d || 3,870
|-
| Eudicot || [[Apiaceae]] or Umbelliferae || [[parsley]] || 3,780
|-
| Eudicot || [[Brassicaceae]] or Cruciferae || [[cabbage]] || 3,710
|-
| Magnoliid dicot || [[Piperaceae]] || [[Piper (genus)|pepper]] || 3,600
|-
| Monocot || [[Bromeliaceae]] || [[bromelia]]d || 3,540
|-
| Eudicot || [[Acanthaceae]] || [[Acanthus (plant)|acanthus]] || 3,500
|-
| Eudicot || [[Rosaceae]] || [[rose]] || 2,830
|-
| Eudicot || [[Boraginaceae]] || [[borage]] || 2,740
|-
| Eudicot || [[Urticaceae]] || [[Urtica dioica|nettle]] || 2,625
|-
| Eudicot || [[Ranunculaceae]] || [[buttercup]] || 2,525
|-
| Magnoliid dicot || [[Lauraceae]] || [[Laurus|laurel]] || 2,500
|}
== Evolution ==
=== History of classification ===
{{main|Plant taxonomy}}
[[File:Ehret-Methodus Plantarum Sexualis.jpg|thumb|upright|From 1736, an illustration of Linnaean classification]]
The botanical term "angiosperm", from Greek words {{lang|grc-Latn|angeíon}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|ἀγγεῖον}} 'bottle, vessel') and {{lang|grc-Latn|spérma}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|σπέρμα}} 'seed'), was coined in the form "Angiospermae" by [[Paul Hermann (botanist)|Paul Hermann]] in 1690, including only flowering plants whose seeds were enclosed in capsules.{{sfn|Balfour|Rendle|1911|p=9}} The term angiosperm fundamentally changed in meaning in 1827 with [[Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)|Robert Brown]], when angiosperm came to mean a seed plant with enclosed ovules.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Robert |chapter=Character and description of ''Kingia'', a new genus of plants found on the southwest coast of New Holland: with observations on the structure of its unimpregnated ovulum; and on the female flower of Cycadeae and Coniferae |pages=534–565 |chapter-url={{Google books|RjdCAAAAIAAJ|page=534|plainurl=yes}} |editor=King, Philip Parker |title=Narrative of a Survey of the Intertropical and Western Coasts of Australia: Performed Between the Years 1818 and 1822 |date=1827 |publisher=J. Murray |oclc=185517977 }}</ref><ref name="Buggs 22–36">{{Cite journal |last=Buggs |first=Richard J.A. |date=January 2021 |title=The origin of Darwin's "abominable mystery" |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=108 |issue=1 |pages=22–36 |doi=10.1002/ajb2.1592 |pmid=33482683 |s2cid=231689158 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 1851, with [[Wilhelm Friedrich Benedikt Hofmeister|Wilhelm Hofmeister]]'s work on embryo-sacs, Angiosperm came to have its modern meaning of all the flowering plants including Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons.<ref name="Buggs 22–36"/>{{sfn|Balfour|Rendle|1911|p=10}} The [[APG system]]{{sfn|APG|2009}} treats the flowering plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms). A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank as the subclass Magnoliidae.{{sfn|Chase|Reveal|2009}} From 1998, the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] (APG) has reclassified the angiosperms, with updates in the [[APG II system]] in 2003,{{sfn|APG|2003}} the [[APG III system]] in 2009,{{sfn|APG|2009}}<ref>{{cite press release |title=As easy as APG III – Scientists revise the system of classifying flowering plants |publisher=The Linnean Society of London |url=https://www.linnean.org/index.php?id=448 |access-date=2 October 2009 |date=8 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126092206/https://www.linnean.org/index.php?id=448 |archive-date=26 November 2010}}</ref> and the [[APG IV system]] in 2016.{{sfn|APG|2016}}
=== Phylogeny ===
==== External ====
In 2019, a [[Molecular phylogenetics|molecular phylogeny]] of [[plant]]s placed the flowering plants in their evolutionary context:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leebens-Mack |first1=M. |last2=Barker |first2=M. |last3=Carpenter |first3=E. |author4-link=Michael Deyholos |last4=Deyholos |first4=M. K. |last5=Gitzendammer |first5=M. A. |last6=Graham |first6=S.W. |last7=Grosse |first7=I. |last8=Li |first8=Zheng |display-authors=3 |title=One thousand plant transcriptomes and the phylogenomics of green plants |journal=Nature |volume=574 |issue=7780 |year=2019 |pages=679–685 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1693-2 |pmid=31645766 |pmc=6872490 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
{{clade
|label1= [[Embryophyte]]s
|sublabel1= land plants
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1= [[Bryophyte]]s [[File:WWB-0265-127-Polytrichum formosum.png|20px]]
|label2= [[Tracheophyte]]s
|sublabel2= vascular plants
|2={{clade
|1=[[Lycophyte]]s [[File:Lycopodium clavatum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-219 (extracted).jpg|50px]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Fern]]s [[File:The ferns of Great Britain, and their allies the club-mosses, pepperworts, and horsetails (Pl. 12) (8516512808).jpg|40px]]
|label2= [[Spermatophyte]]s
|sublabel2= seed plants
|2={{clade
|label1= [[Gymnosperm]]s
|sublabel1= conifers and allies
|1= [[File:Pinus montesumae tab22 2.jpg|50px]]
|label2= '''Angiosperms'''
|sublabel2= '''flowering plants'''
|2= [[File:160 Ranunculus repens.jpg|50px]]
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
==== Internal ====
The main groups of living angiosperms are:<ref>{{cite journal |last=Guo |first=Xing |title=Chloranthus genome provides insights into the early diversification of angiosperms |journal=Nature Communications |date=26 November 2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=6930 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-26922-4 |pmid=34836973 |pmc=8626473 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.6930G |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{sfn|APG|2016}}
{{barlabel |size=20
|at1=4 |label1=[[Basal angiosperms]]
|at2=14 |label2=[[Core angiosperms]]
|cladogram={{clade|style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%
|label1=''' Angiosperms '''
|1={{clade
|1=[[Amborellales]] [[File:Amborella trichopoda.jpg|70px]] 1 sp. [[New Caledonia]] shrub |barbegin1=red
|2={{clade
|1=[[Nymphaeales]] [[File:2007 nymphaea lotus.jpg|70px]] c. 80 spp.<ref name="Palmer-2004">{{cite journal |last1=Palmer |first1=Jeffrey D. |last2=Soltis |first2=Douglas E. |last3=Chase |first3=Mark W. |title=The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1437–45 |date=October 2004 |pmid=21652302 |doi=10.3732/ajb.91.10.1437 |doi-access=free }}, [https://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/91/10/1437/F2 Figure 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110202073937/http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/91/10/1437/F2 |date=2 February 2011 }}</ref> [[Nymphaeaceae|water lilies]] & allies |bar1=red
|2={{clade
|1=[[Austrobaileyales]] [[File:Schisandra rubriflora.jpg|70px]] c. 100 spp.<ref name="Palmer-2004"/> woody plants |barend1=red
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Magnoliids]] [[File:Magnolia obovata 02.jpg|70px]] c. 10,000 spp.<ref name="Palmer-2004"/> [[merosity|3-part]] flowers, 1-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves |barbegin1=green
|2=[[Chloranthales]] [[File:Sarcandra_glabra2.jpg|70px]] 77 spp.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Christenhusz |first1=Maarten J. M. |last2=Fay |first2=Michael F. |last3=Chase |first3=Mark W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLo7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA114 |title=Plants of the World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Vascular Plants |isbn=978-0-226-52292-0 |page=114 |date=2017 |publisher=University of Chicago Press }}</ref> Woody, apetalous |bar2=green
}}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Monocots]] [[File:White orchid in Clara bog. 03.jpg|45px]] c. 70,000 spp.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Massoni |first1=Julien |last2=Couvreur |first2=Thomas L.P. |last3=Sauquet |first3=Hervé |date=2015-03-18 |title=Five major shifts of diversification through the long evolutionary history of Magnoliidae (angiosperms) |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=49 |doi=10.1186/s12862-015-0320-6 |pmc=4377182 |pmid=25887386 |bibcode=2015BMCEE..15...49M |doi-access=free }}</ref> 3-part flowers, 1 [[cotyledon]], 1-pore pollen, usu. parallel-veined leaves |bar1=green
|2={{clade
|1=[[Ceratophyllales]] [[File:CeratophyllumSubmersum.jpg|70px]] c. 6 spp.<ref name="Palmer-2004"/> [[aquatic plant]]s |bar1=green
|2=[[Eudicots]] [[File:Senecio_angulatus_003.jpg|70px]] c. 175,000 spp.<ref name="Palmer-2004"/> 4- or 5-part flowers, 3-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves |barend2=green
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
<!------------------- collapsible element containing large cladogram of APG IV phylogeny --------------->
{|class="collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%; border:solid 1px #aaa"
|-
! style="background:#F0F2F5" |Detailed [[Cladogram]] of the 2016 [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] (APG) IV classification.{{sfn|APG|2016}}
|-
|
{{clade|style=font-size:80%;line-height:80%
|label1='''Angiosperms'''
|1={{clade
|1=[[Amborellales]] <small>Melikyan, Bobrov & Zaytzeva 1999</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Nymphaeales]] <small>Salisbury ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Austrobaileyales]] <small>Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992</small>
|label2=[[Mesangiosperms]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Chloranthales]] <small>Mart. 1835</small>
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Magnoliids]] <!--insert dummy clade for spacing-->
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Canellales]] <small>Cronquist 1957</small>
|2=[[Piperales]] <small>von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
}}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Magnoliales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2=[[Laurales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
}}
}}
}}
|3={{clade
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Monocots]] <!--insert dummy clade-->
|1={{clade
|1=[[Acorales]] <small>Link 1835</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Alismatales]] <small>Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Petrosaviales]] <small>Takhtajan 1997</small>
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Dioscoreales]] <small>Brown 1835</small>
|2=[[Pandanales]] <small>Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
}}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Liliales]] <small>Perleb 1826</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Asparagales]] <small>Link 1829</small>
|label2=[[Commelinids]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Arecales]] <small>Bromhead 1840</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Poales]] <small>Small 1903</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Zingiberales]] <small>Grisebach 1854</small>
|2=[[Commelinales]] <small>de Mirbel ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Ceratophyllales]] <small>Link 1829</small>
|label2=[[Eudicots]]
|2=EUDICOTS <!--target keyword that will be substituted by Eudicot subtree (see below)-->
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|targetA=EUDICOTS
|subcladeA= {{clade
|1=[[Ranunculales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Proteales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Trochodendrales]] <small>Takhtajan ex Cronquist 1981</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Buxales]] <small>Takhtajan ex Reveal 1996</small>
|label2=[[Core eudicots]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Gunnerales]] <small>Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Dilleniales]] <small>de Candolle ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|label2=[[Superrosids]]
|2=SUPERROSIDS
|label3=[[Superasterids]]
|3=SUPERASTERIDS
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|targetB=SUPERROSIDS
|subcladeB= {{clade
|1=[[Saxifragales]] <small>von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|label2=[[Rosids]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Vitales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|label1=Fabids |sublabel1=(eurosids I)
|1={{clade
|1=[[Zygophyllales]] <small>Link 1829</small>
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Celastrales]] <small>Link 1829</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Oxalidales]] <small>von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2=[[Malpighiales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
}}
}}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Fabales]] <small>Bromhead 1838</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Rosales]] <small>von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Cucurbitales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2=[[Fagales]] <small>Engler 1892</small>
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|label2=Malvids |sublabel2=(eurosids II)
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Geraniales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2=[[Myrtales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
}}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Crossosomatales]] <small>Takhtajan ex Reveal 1993</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Picramniales]] <small>Doweld 2001</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Sapindales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Huerteales]] <small>Doweld 2001</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Malvales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2=[[Brassicales]] <small>Bromhead 1838</small>
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|targetC=SUPERASTERIDS
|subcladeC= {{clade
|1=[[Berberidopsidales]] <small>Doweld 2001</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Santalales]] <small>Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Caryophyllales]]
|label2=[[Asterids]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Cornales]] <small>Link 1829</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Ericales]] <small>von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|label1=Lamiids |sublabel1=(euasterids I)
|1={{clade
|1=[[Icacinales]] <small>Van Tieghem 1900</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Metteniusales]] <small>Takhtajan 1997</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Garryales]] <small>Mart. 1835</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Gentianales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2=[[Solanales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|3=[[Boraginales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|4=[[Vahliales]] <small>Doweld 2001</small>
|5=[[Lamiales]] <small>Bromhead 1838</small>
}}
}}
}}
}}
|label2=Campanulids |sublabel2=(euasterids II)
|2={{clade
|1=[[Aquifoliales]] <small>Senft 1856</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Escalloniales]] <small>Mart. 1835</small>
|2=[[Asterales]] <small>Link 1829</small>
|3={{clade
|1=[[Bruniales]] <small>Dumortier 1829</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Apiales]] <small>Nakai 1930</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Paracryphiales]] <small>Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992</small>
|2=[[Dipsacales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|}
In 2024, Alexandre R. Zuntini and colleagues constructed a tree of some 6,000 flowering plant genera, representing some 60% of the existing genera, on the basis of analysis of 353 nuclear genes in each specimen. Much of the existing phylogeny is confirmed; the [[Rosidae|rosid]] phylogeny is revised.<ref name="Zuntini et al 2024">{{cite journal |last1=Zuntini |first1=Alexandre R. |last2=Carruthers |first2=Tom |last3=Maurin |first3=Olivier |last4=Bailey |first4=Paul C. |last5=Leempoel |first5=Kevin |last6=Brewer |first6=Grace E. |display-authors=etal <!-- 279 authors--> |title=Phylogenomics and the rise of the angiosperms |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=24 April 2024 |issn=0028-0836 |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-07324-0|pmid=38658746 }}<!--images are CC-by-SA--></ref>
[[File:Tree of Angiosperm Phylogeny 2024.jpg|thumb|center|upright=3|Tree of Angiosperm Phylogeny 2024]]
=== Fossil history ===
{{main|Fossil history of flowering plants}}
[[File:Sagaria cilentana (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Adaptive radiation]] in the [[Cretaceous]] created many flowering plants, such as ''[[Sagaria]]'' in the [[Ranunculaceae]].]]
Fossilised [[spore]]s suggest that land plants ([[embryophyte]]s) have existed for at least 475 million years.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Edwards |first=D. |title=The role of mid-palaeozoic mesofossils in the detection of early bryophytes |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |volume=355 |issue=1398 |pages=733–54; discussion 754–5 |date=June 2000 |pmid=10905607 |pmc=1692787 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2000.0613 }}</ref> However, angiosperms [[abominable mystery|appear suddenly]] and in great diversity in the fossil record in the Early Cretaceous (~130 mya).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Herendeen |first1=Patrick S. |last2=Friis |first2=Else Marie |last3=Pedersen |first3=Kaj Raunsgaard |last4=Crane |first4=Peter R. |date=2017-03-03 |title=Palaeobotanical redux: revisiting the age of the angiosperms |url=https://rdcu.be/c0Zhm |journal=Nature Plants |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=17015 |doi=10.1038/nplants.2017.15 |pmid=28260783 |s2cid=205458714 |issn=2055-0278}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Friedman |first=William E. |date=January 2009 |title=The meaning of Darwin's "abominable mystery" |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3732/ajb.0800150 |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=5–21 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800150 |pmid=21628174}}</ref> Claimed records of flowering plants prior to this are not widely accepted.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bateman |first=Richard M |date=2020-01-01 |editor-last=Ort |editor-first=Donald |title=Hunting the Snark: the flawed search for mythical Jurassic angiosperms |url=https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/71/1/22/5571867 |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |language=en |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=22–35 |doi=10.1093/jxb/erz411 |pmid=31538196 |issn=0022-0957}}</ref> Molecular evidence suggests that the ancestors of angiosperms diverged from the gymnosperms during the late [[Devonian]], about 365 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stull |first1=Gregory W. |last2=Qu |first2=Xiao-Jian |last3=Parins-Fukuchi |first3=Caroline |last4=Yang |first4=Ying-Ying |last5=Yang |first5=Jun-Bo |last6=Yang |first6=Zhi-Yun |last7=Hu |first7=Yi |last8=Ma |first8=Hong |last9=Soltis |first9=Pamela S. |last10=Soltis |first10=Douglas E. |last11=Li |first11=De-Zhu |display-authors=3 |date=July 19, 2021 |title=Gene duplications and phylogenomic conflict underlie major pulses of phenotypic evolution in gymnosperms |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-021-00964-4 |journal=Nature Plants |volume=7|issue=8 |pages=1015–1025 |doi=10.1038/s41477-021-00964-4 |pmid=34282286 |s2cid=236141481 |access-date=10 January 2022 |archive-date=10 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110174725/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-021-00964-4/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The origin time of the crown group of flowering plants remains contentious.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sauquet |first1=Hervé |last2=Ramírez-Barahona |first2=Santiago |last3=Magallón |first3=Susana |date=2022-06-24 |editor-last=Melzer |editor-first=Rainer |title=What is the age of flowering plants? |url=https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/73/12/3840/6570702 |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |language=en |volume=73 |issue=12 |pages=3840–3853 |doi=10.1093/jxb/erac130 |pmid=35438718 |issn=0022-0957}}</ref> By the Late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by [[fern]]s and [[gymnosperm]]s. Large canopy-forming trees replaced [[conifer]]s as the dominant trees close to the end of the Cretaceous, 66 million years ago.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sadava |first1=David |last2=Heller |first2=H. Craig |last3=Orians |first3=Gordon H. |last4=Purves |first4=William K. |last5=Hillis |first5=David M. |display-authors=3 |title=Life: the science of biology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1m0_FLEjd-cC&pg=PA477 |access-date=4 August 2010 |date=December 2006 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-7167-7674-1 |pages=477– |archive-date=23 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111223082952/http://books.google.com/books?id=1m0_FLEjd-cC&pg=PA477|url-status=live}}</ref> The radiation of herbaceous angiosperms occurred much later.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stewart |first1=Wilson Nichols |last2=Rothwell |first2=Gar W. |title=Paleobotany and the evolution of plants |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1993 |page=498 |isbn=978-0-521-23315-6 }}</ref> In April 2024, scientists reported an overview of the origin and development of flowering plants over the years based on extensive genetic studies.<ref name="NYT-20240511">{{cite news |last=Greenwood |first=Veronique |title=A New Tree of Flowering Plants? For Spring? Groundbreaking. - By sequencing an enormous amount of data, a group of hundreds of researchers has gained new insights into how flowers evolved on Earth. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/11/science/a-new-tree-of-flowering-plants-for-spring-groundbreaking.html |date=11 May 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://archive.ph/ioYgR |archivedate=11 May 2024 |accessdate=12 May 2024 }}</ref><ref name="NAT-20240424">{{cite journal |author=Zuntini, Alexandre R. |display-authors=et al. |title=Phylogenomics and the rise of the angiosperms |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07324-0 |date=24 April 2024 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-07324-0 |pmid=38658746 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://archive.ph/wip/rQu6X |archivedate=12 May 2024 |accessdate=12 May 2024 }}</ref>
== Reproduction ==
=== Flowers ===
{{main|Flower|Plant reproductive morphology}}
[[File:Angiosperm life cycle diagram-en.svg|thumb|upright=2|Angiosperm [[flower]] showing [[Plant reproductive morphology|reproductive parts]] and life cycle]]
The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Its function is to ensure [[Fertilisation|fertilization]] of the [[ovule]] and development of [[fruit]] containing [[seed]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Willson |first=Mary F. |date=1 June 1979 |title=Sexual Selection in Plants |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/283437 |journal=[[The American Naturalist]] |volume=113 |issue=6 |pages=777–790 |doi=10.1086/283437 |s2cid=84970789 |access-date=9 November 2021 |archive-date=9 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109164204/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/283437|url-status=live}}</ref> It may arise terminally on a shoot or from the [[axil]] of a leaf.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bredmose |first=N. |title=Encyclopedia of Rose Science |chapter=Growth Regulation: Axillary Bud Growth |publisher=Elsevier |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/b0-12-227620-5/00017-3 |pages=374–381|isbn=9780122276200 }}</ref> The flower-bearing part of the plant is usually sharply distinguished from the leaf-bearing part, and forms a branch-system called an [[inflorescence]].{{sfn|Balfour|Rendle|1911|p=10}}
Flowers produce two kinds of reproductive cells. [[Microspore]]s, which divide to become [[pollen|pollen grains]], are the male cells; they are borne in the [[stamen]]s.<ref name="Salisbury-1970">{{cite book |last1=Salisbury |first1=Frank B. |chapter=Sexual Reproduction |date=1970 |title=Vascular Plants: Form and Function |pages=185–195 |editor-last=Salisbury |editor-first=Frank B. |series=Fundamentals of Botany Series |location=London |publisher=Macmillan Education |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-00364-8_13 |isbn=978-1-349-00364-8 |last2=Parke |first2=Robert V. |editor2-last=Parke |editor2-first=Robert V.}}</ref> The female cells, [[megaspore]]s, [[megagametogenesis|divide to become the egg cell]]. They are contained in the [[ovule]] and enclosed in the [[carpel]]; one or more carpels form the [[pistil]].<ref name="Salisbury-1970" />
The flower may consist only of these parts, as in [[Anemophily|wind-pollinated]] plants like the [[willow]], where each flower comprises only a few [[stamen]]s or two carpels.{{sfn|Balfour|Rendle|1911|p=10}} In [[Entomophily|insect-]] or [[Ornithophily|bird-pollinated]] plants, other structures protect the [[sporophyll]]s and attract pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding structures are known as [[sepal]]s and [[petal]]s (or [[tepal]]s in flowers such as ''[[Magnolia]]'' where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud.{{Sfn|De Craene|P.|2010|p=7}}{{Sfn|D. Mauseth|2016|p=225}} The inner series (corolla of petals) is, in general, white or brightly colored, is more delicate in structure, and attracts pollinators by colour, [[Floral scent|scent]], and [[nectar]].{{Sfn|De Craene|P.|2010|p=8}}{{Sfn|D. Mauseth|2016|p=226}}
Most flowers are [[Hermaphrodite#Plants|hermaphroditic]], producing both pollen and ovules in the same flower, but some use other devices to reduce self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have carpels and stamens of differing lengths, so animal [[pollinator]]s cannot easily transfer pollen between them. Homomorphic flowers may use a biochemical [[Self-incompatibility in plants|self-incompatibility]] to discriminate between self and non-self pollen grains. [[Dioecious]] plants such as [[holly]] have male and female flowers on separate plants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ainsworth |first=C. |date=August 2000 |title=Boys and Girls Come Out to Play: The Molecular Biology of Dioecious Plants |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=86 |issue=2 |pages=211–221 |doi=10.1006/anbo.2000.1201 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Monoecious]] plants have separate male and female flowers on the same plant; these are often wind-pollinated,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Batygina |first=T.B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4VOWDwAAQBAJ&q=monoecy&pg=PA43 |title=Embryology of Flowering Plants: Terminology and Concepts, Vol. 3: Reproductive Systems |date=2019 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-4436-6 |page=43}}</ref> as in [[maize]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Bortiri | first1=E. | last2=Hake | first2=S. | title=Flowering and determinacy in maize | journal=Journal of Experimental Botany | publisher=Oxford University Press (OUP) | volume=58 | issue=5 | date=2007-01-13 | issn=0022-0957 | doi=10.1093/jxb/erm015 | pages=909–916| pmid=17337752 }}</ref> but include some insect-pollinated plants such as ''[[Cucurbita]]'' squashes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mabberley |first=D. J. |year=2008 |title=The Plant Book: A Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-82071-4 |page=235}}</ref><ref>{{efloras|2|108644 |access-date=February 21, 2015}}</ref>
=== Fertilisation and embryogenesis ===
{{main|Fertilization|Plant embryogenesis}}
[[Double fertilization]] requires two sperm cells to fertilise cells in the ovule. A [[pollen]] grain sticks to the stigma at the top of the pistil, germinates, and grows a long [[pollen tube]]. A haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid (''n'') sperm cells. The pollen tube grows from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary. When it reaches the micropyle of the ovule, it digests its way into one of the synergids, releasing its contents including the sperm cells. The synergid that the cells were released into degenerates; one sperm makes its way to fertilise the egg cell, producing a diploid (2''n'') zygote. The second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3''n'') cell. The zygote develops into an embryo; the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, the embryo's food supply. The ovary develops into a fruit. and each ovule into a seed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Berger |first=F. |date=January 2008 |title=Double-fertilization, from myths to reality |journal=Sexual Plant Reproduction |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=3–5 |doi=10.1007/s00497-007-0066-4 |s2cid=8928640 }}</ref>
=== Fruit and seed ===
[[File:Aesculus hippocastanum fruit.jpg|thumb|The fruit of the [[Aesculus hippocastanum|horse chestnut]] tree, showing the large seed inside the fruit, which is [[Dehiscence (botany)|dehiscing or splitting open]]. ]]
{{main|Fruit|Seed}}
As the embryo and endosperm develop, the wall of the embryo sac enlarges and combines with the [[nucellus]] and [[integument]] to form the ''seed coat''. The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or [[pericarp]], whose form is closely associated with type of seed dispersal system.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Eriksson |first=O. |title=Evolution of Seed Size and Biotic Seed Dispersal in Angiosperms: Paleoecological and Neoecological Evidence |journal=International Journal of Plant Sciences |volume=169 |issue=7 |pages=863–870 |year=2008 |doi=10.1086/589888 |s2cid=52905335 }}</ref>
Other parts of the flower often contribute to forming the fruit. For example, in the [[apple]], the [[hypanthium]] forms the edible flesh, surrounding the ovaries which form the tough cases around the seeds.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fruit Anatomy |url=https://ucanr.edu/sites/btfnp/generaltopics/AnatomyPollination/Fruit_Anatomy/ |publisher=University of California |work=Fruit & Nut Research & Information Center |access-date=|url-status = live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502175636/https://ucanr.edu/sites/btfnp/generaltopics/AnatomyPollination/Fruit_Anatomy/ |archive-date=2 May 2023}}</ref>
[[Apomixis]], setting seed without fertilization, is found naturally in about 2.2% of angiosperm genera.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hojsgaard |first1=D. |last2=Klatt |first2=S. |last3=Baier |first3=R. |last4=Carman |first4=J.G. |last5=Hörandl |first5=E. |display-authors=3 |title=Taxonomy and Biogeography of Apomixis in Angiosperms and Associated Biodiversity Characteristics |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=414–427 |date=September 2014 |pmid=27019547 |pmc=4786830 |doi=10.1080/07352689.2014.898488 |bibcode=2014CRvPS..33..414H }}</ref> Some angiosperms, including many [[citrus]] varieties, are able to produce fruits through a type of apomixis called [[nucellar embryony]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Gentile |first=Alessandra |title=The Citrus Genome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hsPXDwAAQBAJ |date=18 March 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-15308-3 |page=171 |access-date=13 December 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414224058/https://books.google.com/books?id=hsPXDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Sexual selection ===
{{Excerpt|Sexual selection in flowering plants}}
===Adaptive function of flowers===
Charles Darwin in his 1878 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom<ref>Darwin, C. R. 1878. The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. London: John Murray". darwin-online.org.uk</ref> in the initial paragraph of chapter XII noted "The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented." [[Flower]]s emerged in plant evolution as an adaptation for the promotion of cross-[[fertilisation]] ([[outcrossing]]), a process that allows the masking of deleterious [[mutation]]s in the [[genome]] of progeny. The masking effect is known as [[complementation (genetics)|genetic complementation]].<ref name = Bernstein1985>Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep 20;229(4719):1277-81. doi: 10.1126/science.3898363. PMID 3898363</ref> This beneficial effect of cross-fertilisation on progeny is also referred to as [[hybrid vigour|hybrid vigor]] or [[heterosis]]. Once flowers became established in a lineage as an evolutionary adaptation to promote cross-fertilization, subsequent switching to inbreeding usually becomes disadvantageous, in large part because it allows expression of the previously masked deleterious recessive mutations, i.e. [[inbreeding depression]].
Also, [[Meiosis]] in flowering plants provides a direct mechanism for [[DNA repair|repairing DNA]] through genetic recombination in reproductive tissues.<ref name = Horandl2024>Hörandl E. Apomixis and the paradox of sex in plants. Ann Bot. 2024 Mar 18:mcae044. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcae044. Epub ahead of print. PMID 38497809</ref> [[Sexual reproduction]] appears to be required for maintaining long-term [[genome|genomic]] integrity and only infrequent combinations of extrinsic and intrinsic factors permit shifts to asexuality.<ref name = Horandl2024/> Thus the two fundamental aspects of sexual reproduction in flowering plants, cross-fertilization (outcrossing) and meiosis appear to be maintained respectively by the advantages of genetic complementation and recombinational repair.<ref name = Bernstein1985/>
== Interactions with humans ==
{{main|Human uses of plants}}
=== Practical uses ===
[[File:Rice Harvest 2020 - 50248478521.jpg|thumb|Harvesting [[rice]] in Arkansas, 2020]]
[[File:Daal_after_Tadka_Pulse_Soup_India.jpg|thumb|Food from plants: a dish of ''[[Dal tadka]]'', Indian lentil soup]]
[[Agriculture]] is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food and [[livestock]] feed. Much of this food derives from a small number of flowering plant families.<ref name="Dilcher Cronquist 2016">{{cite web |last1=Dilcher |first1=David L. |last2=Cronquist |first2=Arthur |last3=Zimmermann |first3=Martin Huldrych |last4=Stevens |first4=Peter |last5=Stevenson |first5=Dennis William |last6=Berry |first6=Paul E. |author-link2=Arthur Cronquist |author-link4=Peter F. Stevens |title=Angiosperm: Significance to Humans |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm/Significance-to-humans |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |date=8 March 2016}}</ref> For instance, half of the world's [[calorie]] intake is supplied by just three plants - [[wheat]], [[rice]] and [[maize]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=McKie |first=Robin |date=16 July 2017 |title=Maize, rice, wheat: alarm at rising climate risk to vital crops |newspaper=The Observer |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/jul/15/climate-change-food-famine-study |access-date=30 July 2023 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Major food-providing families<ref name="Dilcher Cronquist 2016"/>
|-
! Family !! English !! Example foods from that family
|-
| [[Poaceae]] || Grasses, cereals || Most feedstocks, inc. [[rice]], [[maize]], [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[rye]], [[oat]]s, [[pearl millet]], [[sugar cane]], [[sorghum]]
|-
| [[Fabaceae]] || Legumes, pea family || [[Pea]]s, [[bean]]s, [[lentils]]; for animal feed, [[clover]], [[alfalfa]]
|-
| [[Solanaceae]] || Nightshade family || [[Potato]]es, [[tomato]]es, [[capsicum|peppers]], [[aubergine]]s
|-
| [[Cucurbitaceae]] || Gourd family || [[Cucurbita|Squashes]], [[cucumber]]s, [[pumpkin]]s, [[melon]]s
|-
| [[Brassicaceae]] || Cabbage family || [[Cabbage]] and its varieties, e.g. [[Brussels sprout]], [[broccoli]]; [[mustard plant|mustard]]; [[rapeseed|oilseed rape]]
|-
| [[Apiaceae]] || Parsley family || [[Parsnip]], [[carrot]], [[parsley]], [[coriander]], [[fennel]], [[cumin]], [[caraway]]
|-
| [[Rutaceae]] || Rue family<ref>{{cite web |title=Rutaceae |url=https://www.botanical-dermatology-database.info/BotDermFolder/RUTA.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719224511/https://www.botanical-dermatology-database.info/BotDermFolder/RUTA.html |archive-date=July 19, 2019 |website=Botanical Dermatology Database}}</ref> || [[Orange (fruit)|Oranges]], [[lemon]]s, [[grapefruit]]s
|-
| [[Rosaceae]] || Rose family<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Shu-Dong |last2=Jin |first2=Jian-Jun |last3=Chen |first3=Si-Yun |last4=Chase |first4=Mark W. |last5=Soltis |first5=Douglas E. |last6=Li |first6=Hong-Tao |last7=Yang |first7=Jun-Bo |last8=Li |first8=De-Zhu |last9=Yi |first9=Ting-Shuang |display-authors=3 |date=2017 |title=Diversification of Rosaceae since the Late Cretaceous based on plastid phylogenomics |journal=New Phytologist |volume=214 |issue=3 |pages=1355–1367 |doi=10.1111/nph.14461 |pmid=28186635 |issn=1469-8137|doi-access=free }}</ref> || [[Apple]]s, [[pear]]s, [[cherry|cherries]], [[apricot]]s, [[plum]]s, [[peach]]es
|}
Flowering plants provide a diverse range of materials in the form of [[wood]], [[paper]], fibers such as [[cotton]], [[flax]], and [[hemp]], [[medicinal plants|medicines]] such as [[digoxin]] and [[opioid]]s, and decorative and landscaping plants. [[Coffee]] and [[hot chocolate]] are beverages from flowering plants.<ref name="Dilcher Cronquist 2016"/>
=== Cultural uses ===
[[File:Kingfisher-iris.jpg|thumb|upright| [[Bird-and-flower painting]]: ''Kingfisher and iris'' ''kachō-e'' woodblock print by Ohara Koson (late 19th century)]]
Both real and [[Fictional plants|fictitious plants]] play a wide variety of [[List of fictional plants|roles in literature and film]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Literary Plants |journal=Nature Plants |date=2015 |volume=1 |issue=11 |page=15181 |doi=10.1038/nplants.2015.181 |pmid=27251545 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Flowers are the subjects of many poems by poets such as [[William Blake]], [[Robert Frost]], and [[Rabindranath Tagore]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Flower Poems |url=http://www.poemhunter.com/poems/flower/ |website=Poem Hunter |access-date=21 June 2016}}</ref> [[Bird-and-flower painting]] ({{Transliteration|zh|Huaniaohua}}) is a kind of [[Chinese painting]] that celebrates the beauty of flowering plants.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nature's Song: Chinese Bird and Flower Paintings |url=https://museum.wales/cardiff/whatson/9245/Natures-Song-Traditional-Chinese-Bird-and-Flower-Paintings-/ |access-date=2022-08-04 |website=Museum Wales |language=en |archive-date=4 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220804231344/https://museum.wales/cardiff/whatson/9245/Natures-Song-Traditional-Chinese-Bird-and-Flower-Paintings-/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Flowers have been [[language of flowers|used in literature to convey meaning]] by authors including [[William Shakespeare]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Language of Flowers |url=http://www.folger.edu/template.cfm?cid=3192 |publisher=Folger Shakespeare Library |access-date=2013-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140919185926/http://www.folger.edu/template.cfm?cid=3192 |archive-date=2014-09-19 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
Flowers are used in a variety of art forms which arrange cut or living plants, such as [[bonsai]], [[ikebana]], and flower arranging. [[Ornamental plant]]s have sometimes changed the course of history, as in [[tulip mania|tulipomania]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Lambert |first=Tim |title=A Brief History of Gardening |url=http://www.localhistories.org/gardening.html |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]] |access-date=21 June 2016 |date=2014}}</ref> Many countries and regions have [[floral emblem]]s; a survey of 70 of these found that the most popular flowering plant family<!--Figure 9 in the source--> for such emblems is Orchidaceae at 15.7% (11 emblems), followed by Fabaceae at 10% (7 emblems), and Asparagaceae, Asteraceae, and Rosaceae all at 5.7% (4 emblems each).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lim |first1=Reuben |last2=Tan |first2=Heok |last3=Tan |first3=Hugh |year=2013 |title=Official Biological Emblems of the World <!--online--> |publisher=[[Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-9-8107-4147-1 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283008038}}</ref>
=== Conservation ===
{{further|Conservation biology|Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity}}
[[File:Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG|thumb|left|upright=0.9|[[Viola calcarata]], a species highly vulnerable to climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Block |first1=Sebastián |last2=Maechler |first2=Marc-Jacques |last3=Levine |first3=Jacob I. |last4=Alexander |first4=Jake M. |last5=Pellissier |first5=Loïc |last6=Levine |first6=Jonathan M. |date=26 August 2022 |title=Ecological lags govern the pace and outcome of plant community responses to 21st-century climate change |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=25 |issue=10 |pages=2156–2166 |doi=10.1111/ele.14087 |pmid=36028464 |pmc=9804264 |bibcode=2022EcolL..25.2156B }}</ref>]]
[[Human impact on the environment]] has driven a range of species extinct and [[Holocene extinction|is threatening even more today]]. Multiple organizations such as [[IUCN]] and [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] suggest that around 40% of plant species are threatened with extinction.<ref name="Lughadha2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Lughadha |first1=Eimear Nic|last2=Bachman |first2=Steven P. |last3=Leão |first3=Tarciso C. C. |last4=Forest |first4=Félix |last5=Halley |first5=John M. |last6=Moat |first6=Justin |last7=Acedo|first7=Carmen |last8=Bacon |first8=Karen L. |last9=Brewer |first9=Ryan F. A. |last10=Gâteblé |first10=Gildas |last11=Gonçalves |first11=Susana C.|last12=Govaerts |first12=Rafaël |last13=Hollingsworth |first13=Peter M. |last14=Krisai-Greilhuber |first14=Irmgard |last15=de Lirio |first15=Elton J. |last16=Moore |first16=Paloma G. P. |last17=Negrão |first17=Raquel |last18=Onana |first18=Jean Michel |last19=Rajaovelona |first19=Landy R. |last20=Razanajatovo |first20=Henintsoa |last21=Reich |first21=Peter B. |last22=Richards |first22=Sophie L. |last23=Rivers |first23=Malin C. |last24=Cooper |first24=Amanda |last25=Iganci |first25=João |last26=Lewis |first26=Gwilym P. |last27=Smidt |first27=Eric C. |last28=Antonelli |first28=Alexandre |last29=Mueller |first29=Gregory M. |last30=Walker |first30=Barnaby E. |date=29 September 2020 |title=Extinction risk and threats to plants and fungi |journal=Plants People Planet |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=389–408 |doi=10.1002/ppp3.10146 |s2cid=225274409 |doi-access=free |hdl=10316/101227 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The majority are threatened by [[Habitat destruction|habitat loss]], but activities such as logging of wild timber trees and collection of medicinal plants, or the introduction of non-native [[invasive species]], also play a role.<ref name="BGCI 2023"/>
Relatively few plant diversity assessments currently consider [[climate change]],<ref name="Lughadha2020" /> yet it is [[Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity|starting to impact plants]] as well. About 3% of flowering plants are very likely to be driven extinct within a century at {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} of global warming, and 10% at {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}}.<ref>Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat et al. (2022) [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter02.pdf Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services] in {{cite book | title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | chapter=Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services | publisher=Cambridge University Press | date=2023 | isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 | doi=10.1017/9781009325844.004 | pages=197–378 |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/}}</ref> In worst-case scenarios, half of all tree species may be driven extinct by climate change over that timeframe.<ref name="Lughadha2020" />
Conservation in this context is the attempt to prevent extinction, whether ''[[in situ]]'' by protecting plants and their habitats in the wild, or ''[[Ex situ conservation|ex situ]]'' in [[seed bank]]s or as living plants.<ref name="BGCI 2023">{{cite web |title=Botanic Gardens and Plant Conservation |url=https://www.bgci.org/about/botanic-gardens-and-plant-conservation/ |website=Botanic Gardens Conservation International |access-date=19 July 2023}}</ref> Some 3000 [[botanic gardens]] around the world maintain living plants, including over 40% of the species known to be threatened, as an "insurance policy against extinction in the wild."<ref>{{cite web |title=Plant Conservation Around the World |url=https://www.botanic.cam.ac.uk/festival-of-plants-2020/fop-day3-conservation/plant-conservation-around-the-world/ |website=Cambridge University Botanic Garden |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2020}}</ref> The [[United Nations]]' [[Global Strategy for Plant Conservation]] asserts that "without plants, there is no life".<ref name="CBD 2023"/> It aims to "halt the continuing loss of plant diversity" throughout the world.<ref name="CBD 2023">{{cite web |title=Updated Global Strategy for Plant Conservation 2011-2020 |url=https://www.cbd.int/gspc/ |website=Convention on Biological Diversity |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=3 July 2023}}</ref>{{Clear}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==Bibliography==
===Articles, books and chapters===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{EB1911 |wstitle=Angiosperms |volume=2 |pages=9–14 |first1=Isaac Bayley |last1=Balfour |author-link1=Isaac Bayley Balfour |first2=Alfred Barton |last2=Rendle |author-link2=Alfred Barton Rendle}}
* {{cite journal |last=APG |author-link=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group |journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]] |volume=141 |pages=399–436 |year=2003 |title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II |doi=10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x |issue=4 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=APG |author-link=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group |year=2009 |title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III |journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]] |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=105–121 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x |doi-access=free|hdl=10654/18083 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{Cite journal |last=APG |author-link=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group |year=2016 |title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV |journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]] |volume=181 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi= 10.1111/boj.12385 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Becker |first1=Kenneth M. |title=A Comparison of Angiosperm Classification Systems |journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]] |date=February 1973 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=19–50 |doi=10.2307/1218032 |jstor=1218032 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bell |first1=Adrian D. |title=Plant Form. An Illustrated Guide to Flowering Plant Morphology |date=2008 |orig-date=1991 |publisher=Timber Press |location=Portland, Oregon |isbn=978-0-88192-850-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SM3khPHXhKEC |ref=none}}
** [https://archive.org/details/plantform00adri 1st edition published by Oxford University Press in 1991] {{ISBN |978-0-19854-219-3}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=C.D. |last2=Soltis |first2=D.E. |last3=Soltis |first3=P.S. |author-link3=Pamela S. Soltis |author-link2=Douglas Soltis |year=2010 |title=The Age and Diversification of the Angiosperms Revisited |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |volume=97 |issue=8 |pages=1296–1303 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0900346 |pmid=21616882 |s2cid=207613985 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chase |first1=Mark W. |last2=Reveal |first2=James L. |year=2009 |title=A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=122–127 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.x |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite book |last1=De Craene |first1=Ronse |last2=P.|first2=Louis|title=Floral Diagrams |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-511-80671-1 |location=Cambridge|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511806711 }}
* Cromie, William J. (December 16, 1999). [https://web.archive.org/web/20030714120417/http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/12.16/angiosperms.html "Oldest Known Flowering Plants Identified By Genes"]. Harvard University Gazette.
* {{cite journal |last1=Cronquist |first1=Arthur |author-link=Arthur Cronquist |title=The divisions and classes of plants |journal=The Botanical Review |date=October 1960 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=425–482 |doi=10.1007/BF02940572 |bibcode=1960BotRv..26..425C |s2cid=43144314}}
* {{cite book |last=Cronquist |first= Arthur |author-link=Arthur Cronquist |year=1981 |title=An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/integratedsystem0000cron |url-access=registration |publisher=Columbia Univ. Press |location= New York |isbn= 978-0-231-03880-5 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dahlgren |first1=R. M. T. |author-link=Rolf Dahlgren |title=A revised system of classification of the angiosperms |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |date=February 1980 |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=91–124 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1980.tb01661.x |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dahlgren |first1=Rolf |author-link=Rolf Dahlgren |title=General aspects of angiosperm evolution and macrosystematics |journal=Nordic Journal of Botany |date=February 1983 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=119–149 |doi=10.1111/j.1756-1051.1983.tb01448.x |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dilcher |first1=D. |doi=10.1073/pnas.97.13.7030 |pmid=10860967 |title=Toward a new synthesis: Major evolutionary trends in the angiosperm fossil record |year=2000 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=97 |issue=13 |pages=7030–7036 |pmc=34380 |bibcode=2000PNAS...97.7030D |doi-access=free |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Heywood |first1=V. H. |author2=Brummitt, R. K. |author3=Culham, A. |author4=Seberg, O. |title=Flowering Plant Families of the World |publisher=Firefly Books |year=2007 |location=Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada |isbn=978-1-55407-206-4 |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Hill |first1=Christopher |last2=Crane |first2=Peter |editor-last1=Joysey |editor-first1=Kenneth Alan |editor-last2=Friday |editor-first2=A.E. |encyclopedia=Problems of Phylogenetic Reconstruction |title=Evolutionary Cladistics and the origin of Angiosperms |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275374707 |date=January 1982 |publisher=Systematics Association |series=Special Volumes |volume=21 |location=London |isbn=978-0-12-391250-3 |pages=269–361 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lersten |first1=Nels R. |title=Flowering plant embryology with emphasis on economic species |date=2004 |publisher=Blackwell Pub. |location=Ames, Iowa |isbn=978-0-470-75267-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2YbwF7tH6dUC |ref=none}}
*{{cite book|last=D. Mauseth|first=James|title=Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|year=2016|isbn=978-1-284-07753-7|edition=6th }}
* {{cite book |last1=Pooja |first1=<!--Not stated, the printed book just says "Dr. Pooja"--> |title=Angiosperms |date=2004 |publisher=Discovery |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-7141-788-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3pZxuyUllJIC |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Raven |first1=P.H. |last2=Evert |first2=R.F. |last3=Eichhorn |first3=S.E. |title=Biology of Plants |edition=7th |publisher=W.H. Freeman |year=2004 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Sattler |first=R. |year=1973 |title=Organogenesis of Flowers. A Photographic Text-Atlas |publisher=University of Toronto Press |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Simpson |first=Michael G. |title=Plant Systematics |year=2010 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-08-092208-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dj8KRImgyf4C |edition=2nd |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Soltis |first1=Pamela S |last2=Soltis |first2=Douglas E |author-link1=Pamela Soltis |author-link2=Douglas Soltis |title=Ancient WGD events as drivers of key innovations in angiosperms |journal=[[Current Opinion in Plant Biology]] |date=April 2016 |volume=30 |pages=159–165 |doi=10.1016/j.pbi.2016.03.015 |pmid=27064530 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016COPB...30..159S |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Takhtajan |first1=A. |author-link=Takhtajan |title=The Taxa of the Higher Plants above the Rank of Order |journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]] |date=June 1964 |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=160–164 |doi=10.2307/1216134 |jstor=1216134}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Takhtajan |first1=A. |author-link=Takhtajan |title=Outline of the Classification of Flowering Plants (Magnoliophyta) |journal=Botanical Review |date=July–September 1980 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=225–359 |jstor=4353970 |doi=10.1007/bf02861558 |bibcode=1980BotRv..46..225T |s2cid=30764910}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=Liping |last2=Zhang |first2=Qiang |last3=Sun |first3=Renran |last4=Kong |first4=Hongzhi |last5=Zhang |first5=Ning |last6=Ma |first6=Hong |title=Resolution of deep angiosperm phylogeny using conserved nuclear genes and estimates of early divergence times |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |date=24 September 2014 |volume=5 |issue=4956 |pages=4956 |doi=10.1038/ncomms5956 |pmid=25249442 |pmc=4200517 |bibcode=2014NatCo...5.4956Z |ref=none}}
{{Refend}}
===Websites===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite web |last1=Cole |first1=Theodor C.H. |last2=Hilger |first2=Harmut H. |first3=Peter F. |last3=Stevens |date=2017 |url=http://www.biologie.fu-berlin.de/sysbot/poster/poster1.pdf |title=Angiosperm Phylogeny Poster{{spaced ndash}} Flowering Plant Systematics |ref=none}}
* {{cite web |last1=Watson |first1=L. |last2=Dallwitz |first2=M.J. |date=1992 |url=http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/delta/angio |title=The Families of Flowering Plants: Descriptions, Illustrations, Identification, and Information Retrieval |version=14 December 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140802080838/http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/delta/angio |archive-date=2014-08-02 |ref=none}}
* {{EOL|282}}
{{Refend}}
{{Plant classification}}
{{Botany}}
{{Angiosperm orders}}
{{Lists of angiosperm families}}
{{Life on Earth}}
{{Subject bar|Plants|c=Angiosperms|commonscat=y|species=Magnoliophyta|b=Magnoliophyta|auto=1}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q25314}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Flowering Plant}}
[[Category:Angiosperms|Angiosperms]]
[[Category:Plant sexuality]]
[[Category:Plants]]
[[Category:Pollination]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit ($1) (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Clade of seed plants that produce flowers}}
{{Redirect|Flowering Plants|the book by G. Ledyard Stebbins|Flowering Plants: Evolution Above the Species Level}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name =
| fossil_range = {{fossilrange|Valanginian|Recent|earliest=132|latest=0|Early Cretaceous ([[Valanginian]])-Recent}}
| image = {{Multiple image
|perrow = 2
|total_width = 270
|image1 = Ranunculus repens 1 (cropped).JPG
|caption1 = Terrestrial: [[Ranunculaceae|buttercup]]
|image2 = Nymphaea alba flower-and-leaves-DSC 3326w.jpg
|caption2 = Aquatic: [[Nymphaeaceae|water lily]]
|image3 = Meadow Foxtail head.jpg
|caption3 = Wind-pollinated: [[Poaceae|grass]]
|image4 = Apple blossom. Eastern Siberia.jpg
|caption4 = Insect-pollinated: [[Rosaceae|apple]]
|image5 = Quercus robur 4 RF (cropped).jpg
|caption5 = Tree: [[Quercus|oak]]
|image6 = Orchis simia Saarland 01.jpg
|caption6 = Forb: [[orchid]]
|border = infobox
|footer = Diversity of angiosperms
}}
| taxon = Angiosperms
| authority =
| subdivision_ranks = Groups (APG IV){{sfn|APG|2016}}
| subdivision = [[Basal angiosperms]]
* [[Amborellales]]
* [[Nymphaeales]]
* [[Austrobaileyales]]
[[Core angiosperms]]
*Clades
** [[Magnoliids]]
** [[Monocots]]
** [[Eudicots]]
*Orders
** [[Chloranthales]]
** [[Ceratophyllales]]
| synonyms = *Anthophyta <small>Cronquist</small>{{sfn|Cronquist|1960}}
* Angiospermae <small>[[John Lindley|Lindl.]]</small>
* Magnoliophyta <small>[[Arthur J. Cronquist|Cronquist]], [[Takht.]] & [[W.Zimm.]]</small><ref>{{Cite web |last= Reveal |first=James L. |date=2011 |orig-date=or later |title=Indices Nominum Supragenericorum Plantarum Vascularium – M |url=https://www.plantsystematics.org/reveal/pbio/fam/allspgfileM.html |access-date=28 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130827073817/https://www.plantsystematics.org/reveal/pbio/fam/allspgfileM.html |archive-date=27 August 2013 }}</ref>
* Magnolicae <small>Takht.</small>{{sfn|Takhtajan|1964}}
}}
'''Flowering plants''' are [[Plant|plants]] that bear [[flowers]] and [[Fruit|fruits]] and form the clade '''Angiospermae''' ([[Help:IPA/English|/ˌændʒiəˈspərmiː/]]),<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> commonly called '''angiosperms'''. They include all [[Forb|forbs]] (flowering plants without a woody stem), [[Grass|grasses]] and grass-like plants, a vast majority of [[Broad-leaved tree|broad-leaved trees]], [[Shrub|shrubs]] and [[Vine|vines]], and most [[Aquatic plant|aquatic plants]]. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ἀγγεῖον / ''angeion'' ('container, vessel') and σπέρμα / ''Sperma'' ('seed'), meaning that the [[seeds]] are enclosed within a fruit. They are the most diverse [[Embryophyte|land plants]] with 64 [[Order (biology)|orders]], 416 [[Family (biology)|families]], approximately 13,000 known [[Genus|genera]], and 300,000 known [[species]].[3] Angiosperms were formerly called '''Magnoliophyta''' ([[Help:IPA/English|/mæɡˌnoʊliˈɒfətə, -əˈfaɪtə/]]).
Angiosperms are distinguished from the other [[Spermatophyte|seed-producing]] plants, the [[gymnosperm]]s, by having [[flower]]s, [[xylem]] consisting of [[vessel element]]s instead of [[tracheids]], [[endosperm]] within their seeds, and fruits that completely envelop the seeds.
The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from the common ancestor of all living gymnosperms before the end of the [[Carboniferous]], over 300 million years ago. In the [[Cretaceous]], angiosperms [[Adaptive radiation|diversified explosively]], becoming the dominant group of plants across the planet.
[[Agriculture]] is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, and a small number of flowering plant families supply nearly all plant-based [[food]] and [[livestock]] feed. [[Rice]], [[maize]], and [[wheat]] provide half of the world's [[calorie]] intake, and all three plants are cereals from the [[Poaceae]] family (colloquially known as grasses). Other families provide materials such as [[wood]], [[paper]] and [[cotton]], and supply numerous ingredients for traditional and modern medicines. Flowering plants are also commonly grown for decorative purposes, with certain flowers playing a significant role in many cultures.
Out of the "Big Five" [[extinction event]]s in Earth's history, only the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]] had occurred while angiosperms dominated plant life on the planet. Today, the [[Holocene extinction]] affects all [[kingdoms of life|kingdoms of complex life]] on Earth, and conservation measures are necessary to protect plants in their habitats in the wild (''[[in situ]]''), or failing that, ''[[Ex situ conservation|ex situ]]'' in [[seed bank]]s or artificial habitats like [[botanic garden]]s. Otherwise, around 40% of plant species may become [[Extinction|extinct]] due to human actions such as [[habitat destruction]], introduction of [[invasive species]], unsustainable [[logging]] and collection of [[medicinal plants|medicinal]] or [[ornamental plant]]s. Further, [[climate change]] is [[Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity|starting to impact plants]] and is likely to cause many species to become extinct by 2100.
== Distinguishing features ==
Angiosperms are terrestrial vascular plants; like the gymnosperms, they have [[root]]s, [[plant stem|stems]], [[leaves]], and [[seed]]s. They differ from other [[Spermatophyte|seed plants]] in several ways.
{|class="wikitable"
! Feature !! Description !! Image
|-
|[[Flower]]s ||The [[reproductive organ]]s of flowering plants, not found in any other [[seed plants]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=Angiosperms {{!}} OpenStax Biology 2e |url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/angiosperms/ |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=courses.lumenlearning.com |archive-date=19 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719225359/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/angiosperms/ |url-status=live}}</ref>|| [[File:Daffodil flower in section, labelled.svg|thumb|none|A ''[[Narcissus (plant)|Narcissus]]'' flower in section. [[Petal]]s and [[sepal]]s are replaced here by a fused tube, the corona, and tepals.]]
|-
|Reduced [[Gametophyte#Seed plants|gametophytes]], three [[cell (biology)|cells]] in male, seven cells with eight nuclei in female (except for basal angiosperms)<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=William E. |last2=Ryerson |first2=Kirsten C. |title=Reconstructing the ancestral female gametophyte of angiosperms: Insights from Amborella and other ancient lineages of flowering plants |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=96 |issue=1 |date=2009 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800311 |pages=129–143|pmid=21628180 }}</ref>||The gametophytes are smaller than those of gymnosperms.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Raven, Peter H. |author2=Evert, Ray F. |author3=Eichhorn, Susan E. |title=Biology of Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0 |url-access=registration |year=2005 |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=978-0-7167-1007-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0/page/376 376]–}}</ref> The smaller size of the [[pollen]] reduces the time between pollination and [[fertilization]], which in gymnosperms is up to a year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Williams |first=Joseph H. |title=The evolution of pollen germination timing in flowering plants: Austrobaileya scandens (Austrobaileyaceae) |journal=AoB Plants |volume=2012 |pages=pls010 |date=2012 |pmid=22567221 |pmc=3345124 |doi=10.1093/aobpla/pls010 }}</ref>
|rowspan=2 | [[File:Angiosperm embryo sac with female gametophyte.JPG|thumb|none|[[Embryo sac]] is a reduced female [[gametophyte]].]]
|-
|[[Endosperm]] ||Endosperm forms after fertilization but before the [[zygote]] divides. It provides food for the developing [[embryo]], the [[cotyledon]]s, and sometimes the [[seedling]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baroux |first1=C. |last2=Spillane |first2=C. |last3=Grossniklaus |first3=U. |title=Evolutionary origins of the endosperm in flowering plants |journal=Genome Biology |volume=3 |article-number=reviews1026.1 |year=2002 |issue=9 |pages=reviews1026.1 |doi=10.1186/gb-2002-3-9-reviews1026 |pmid=12225592 |pmc=139410 |doi-access=free }}</ref> <!--cell/image shared with row above-->
|-
|Closed [[carpel]] enclosing the [[ovule]]s. ||Once the ovules are fertilised, the carpels, often with surrounding tissues, develop into fruits. Gymnosperms have unenclosed seeds.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gonçalves |first=Beatriz |title=Case not closed: the mystery of the origin of the carpel |journal=EvoDevo |volume=12 |issue=1 |date=2021-12-15 |page=14 |issn=2041-9139 |doi=10.1186/s13227-021-00184-z |pmid=34911578 |pmc=8672599 |doi-access=free }}</ref> || [[File:Alternating peas in peapod (cropped).jpg|thumb|none|Peas (seeds, from ovules) inside pod (fruit, from fertilised carpel).]]
|-
| [[Xylem]] made of [[vessel element]]s || Open vessel elements are stacked end to end to form continuous tubes, whereas gymnosperm xylem is made of tapered [[tracheids]] connected by small [[Pit (botany)|pits]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Baas | first=Pieter | title=New Perspectives in Wood Anatomy | chapter=Systematic, phylogenetic, and ecological wood anatomy — History and perspectives | series=Forestry Sciences | publisher=Springer Netherlands | publication-place=Dordrecht | year=1982 | volume=1 | isbn=978-90-481-8269-5 | issn=0924-5480 | doi=10.1007/978-94-017-2418-0_2 | pages=23–58}}</ref> || [[File:Herbaceous Dicot Stem Xylem Vessels Cucurbita (35463815631).jpg|thumb|none| [[Xylem]] vessels (long tubes).]]
|}
== Diversity ==
=== Ecological diversity ===
{{further|Plant ecology}}
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225px heights=225px caption="Largest and smallest">
File:MountainAshWithCars.jpg|''[[Eucalyptus regnans]]'',<br/>a tree almost 100 m tall
File:WolffiaArrhiza2.jpg|''[[Wolffia arrhiza]]'', a rootless floating freshwater plant under 2 mm across
</gallery>
The largest angiosperms are ''[[Eucalyptus]]'' gum trees of Australia, and ''[[Shorea faguetiana]]'', dipterocarp rainforest trees of Southeast Asia, both of which can reach almost {{convert|100|m|ft}} in height.<ref>{{cite web |title=Menara, yellow meranti, Shorea |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/572236-tallest-flowering-plant-angiosperm |website=Guinness World Records |date=6 January 2019 |access-date=8 May 2023 |quote=yellow meranti (''Shorea faguetiana'') ... 98.53 m (323 ft 3.1 in) tall ... swamp gum (''Eucalyptus regnans'') ... In 2014, it had a tape-drop height of 99.82 m (327 ft 5.9 in)}}</ref> The smallest are ''[[Wolffia]]'' duckweeds which float on freshwater, each plant less than {{convert|2|mm|in|2}} across.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-11-25 |title=The Charms of Duckweed |url=http://www.mobot.org/jwcross/duckweed/duckweed.htm |access-date=2022-07-05 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091125213317/http://www.mobot.org/jwcross/duckweed/duckweed.htm |archive-date=25 November 2009 }}</ref>
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225px heights=225px caption="Photosynthetic and parasitic">
File:Sunlight on a gunnera leaf, 'Quarry Garden', Belsay estate - geograph.org.uk - 1384733.jpg|''[[Gunnera]]'' captures sunlight for [[photosynthesis]] over the large surfaces of its leaves, which are supported by strong veins.
File:Orobanche purpurea.jpg|''[[Orobanche|Orobanche purpurea]]'', a [[Parasitism|parasitic]] broomrape with no leaves, obtains all its food from other plants.
</gallery>
Considering their method of obtaining energy, some 99% of flowering plants are [[photosynthetic]] [[autotroph]]s, deriving their energy from sunlight and using it to create molecules such as [[sugar]]s. The remainder are [[parasitic]], whether [[myco-heterotrophy|on fungi]] like the [[orchids]] for part or all of their life-cycle,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Leake |first=J.R. |year=1994 |title=The biology of myco-heterotrophic ('saprophytic') plants |journal=New Phytologist |volume=127 |issue=2 |pages=171–216 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.1994.tb04272.x |pmid=33874520 |s2cid=85142620 }}</ref> or [[Parasitic plant|on other plants]], either wholly like the broomrapes, ''[[Orobanche]]'', or partially like the witchweeds, ''[[Striga]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Westwood |first1=James H. |last2=Yoder |first2=John I. |last3=Timko |first3=Michael P. |last4=dePamphilis |first4=Claude W. |title=The evolution of parasitism in plants |journal=Trends in Plant Science |volume=15 |issue=4 |year=2010 |issn=1360-1385 |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2010.01.004 |pages=227–235|pmid=20153240 }}</ref>
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225px heights=225px caption="Hot, cold, wet, dry, fresh, salt">
File:Carnegiea gigantea Saguaro cactus plant (cropped).jpg|''[[Carnegiea gigantea]]'', the saguaro cactus, grows in hot dry [[desert]]s in Mexico and the southern United States.
File:Dryas octopetala (Colorado, USA).jpg|''[[Dryas octopetala]]'', the mountain avens, lives in cold arctic and montane habitats in the far north of America and Eurasia.
File:Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (47502598342).jpg|''[[Nelumbo nucifera]]'', the sacred lotus, grows in warm freshwater across tropical and subtropical Asia.
File:Zostera.jpg|''[[Zostera]]'' seagrass grows on the seabed in sheltered coastal waters.
</gallery>
In terms of their environment, flowering plants are cosmopolitan, occupying a wide range of [[habitat]]s on land, in fresh water and in the sea. On land, they are the dominant plant group in every habitat except for frigid moss-lichen [[tundra]] and [[coniferous forest]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Angiosperms |url=http://landau.faculty.unlv.edu//angiosperms.htm |publisher=University of Nevada, Las Vegas |access-date=6 May 2023}}</ref> The [[seagrass]]es in the [[Alismatales]] grow in marine environments, spreading with [[rhizome]]s that grow through the mud in sheltered coastal waters.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kendrick |first1=Gary A. |last2=Orth |first2=Robert J. |last3=Sinclair |first3=Elizabeth A. |last4=Statton |first4=John |title=Plant Regeneration from Seeds |chapter=Effect of climate change on regeneration of seagrasses from seeds |year=2022 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-823731-1.00011-1 |pages=275–283 |isbn=978-0-1282-3731-1 }}</ref>
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225px heights=225px caption="Acid, alkaline">
File:Drosera anglica ne2.jpg|''[[Drosera anglica]]'', a sundew, lives in nutrient-poor acid [[bog]]s, [[Carnivorous plant|deriving nutrients from trapped insects]].<ref name="Karlsson 1992"/>
File:Gentiana verna.jpg|''[[Gentiana verna]]'', the spring gentian, flourishes in dry limestone habitats.<ref name="Pardoe 1995"/>
</gallery>
Some specialised angiosperms are able to flourish in extremely acid or alkaline habitats. The [[sundew]]s, many of which live in nutrient-poor acid [[bog]]s, are [[carnivorous plant]]s, able to derive nutrients such as [[nitrate]] from the bodies of trapped insects.<ref name="Karlsson 1992">{{cite journal |last1=Karlsson |first1=P. S. |last2=Pate |first2=J. S. |title=Contrasting effects of supplementary feeding of insects or mineral nutrients on the growth and nitrogen and phosphorous economy of pygmy species of Drosera. |journal=Oecologia |date=1992 |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=8–13 |doi=10.1007/BF00317256 |pmid=28311806 |bibcode=1992Oecol..92....8K |s2cid=13038192 }}</ref> Other flowers such as ''[[Gentiana verna]]'', the spring gentian, are adapted to the alkaline conditions found on [[calcium]]-rich [[chalk]] and [[limestone]], which give rise to often dry [[Topography|topographies]] such as [[limestone pavement]].<ref name="Pardoe 1995">{{cite book |last=Pardoe |first=H. S. |title=Mountain Plants of the British Isles |year=1995 |publisher=[[Amgueddfa Cymru – Museum Wales|National Museum of Wales]] |page=24 |isbn=978-0-7200-0423-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bRHwm1F15S0C&pg=PA24}}</ref>
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225px heights=225px caption="Herbaceous, woody, climbing">
File:GT Herb Robert.jpg|''[[Geranium robertianum]]'', herb-Robert, is an annual or [[Biennial plant|biennial]] herb of Europe and North America.
File:Betula_pendula_001.jpg|''[[Betula pendula]]'', the silver birch, is a perennial [[deciduous]] tree of Eurasia.
File:Lianas.jpg|[[Liana]]s ''[[Austrosteenisia]]'', ''[[Parsonsia]]'', and ''[[Sarcopetalum]]'' climbing trees in Australia
</gallery>
As for their [[growth habit]], the flowering plants range from small, soft [[herbaceous plant]]s, often living as [[annual plant|annuals]] or [[biennials]] that set seed and die after one growing season,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hart |first1=Robin |title=Why are Biennials so Few? |journal=[[The American Naturalist]] |date=1977 |volume=111 |issue=980 |pages=792–799 |doi=10.1086/283209 |jstor=2460334 |s2cid=85343835 }}</ref> to large [[Perennial plant|perennial]] woody [[tree]]s that may live for many centuries and grow to many metres in height. Some species grow tall without being self-supporting like trees by [[climbing plant|climbing]] on other plants in the manner of [[vine]]s or [[liana]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rowe |first1=Nick |last2=Speck |first2=Thomas |title=Plant growth forms: an ecological and evolutionary perspective |journal=New Phytologist |volume=166 |issue=1 |date=2005-01-12 |issn=0028-646X |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01309.x |pages=61–72 |pmid=15760351 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Taxonomic diversity ===
The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thorne |first=R.F. |title=How many species of seed plants are there?|journal=Taxon|volume=51 |pages=511–522 |year=2002|doi=10.2307/1554864 |issue=3 |jstor=1554864}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scotland |first1=R. W. |last2=Wortley |first2=A. H. |title=How many species of seed plants are there? |journal=Taxon |volume=52 |pages=101–104|year=2003 |doi=10.2307/3647306 |issue=1 |jstor=3647306}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Govaerts |first=R. |title=How many species of seed plants are there? – a response |journal=Taxon |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=583–584 |year=2003 |doi=10.2307/3647457 |jstor=3647457|doi-access=free }}</ref> This compares to around 12,000 species of [[moss]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goffinet |first1=Bernard |last2=Buck |first2=William R. |year=2004 |title=Systematics of the Bryophyta (Mosses): From molecules to a revised classification |journal=Monographs in Systematic Botany |volume=98 |pages=205–239 }}</ref> and 11,000 species of [[Pteridophyta|pteridophytes]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Raven |first1=Peter H. |last2=Evert |first2=Ray F. |last3=Eichhorn |first3=Susan E. |date=2005 |title=Biology of Plants |edition=7th |location=New York |publisher=[[W. H. Freeman and Company]] |isbn=0-7167-1007-2 }}</ref> The [[APG system]] seeks to determine the number of [[family (biology)|families]], mostly by [[molecular phylogenetics]]. In the 2009 [[APG III]] there were 415 families.{{sfn|APG|2009}} The 2016 [[APG IV]] added five new orders (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), along with some new families, for a total of 64 angiosperm orders and 416 families.{{sfn|APG|2016}}
The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families. The 25 most species-rich of 443 families,<ref>{{cite web |last=Stevens |first=P. F. |year=2011 |url=https://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/welcome.html |title=Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (at Missouri Botanical Garden) |access-date=21 February 2022 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120065914/http://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/apweb/welcome.html |url-status=live}}</ref> containing over 166,000 species between them in their APG circumscriptions, are:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ The 25 largest angiosperm families
|-
! Group !! [[Family (biology)|Family]] !! English name !! No. of [[species|spp.]]
|-
| Eudicot || [[Asteraceae]] or Compositae || [[Bellis perennis|daisy]] || 22,750
|-
| Monocot || [[Orchidaceae]] || [[orchid]] || 21,950
|-
| Eudicot || [[Fabaceae]] or Leguminosae || [[pea]], [[legume]] || 19,400
|-
| Eudicot || [[Rubiaceae]] || [[Rubia|madder]] || 13,150 <ref>{{cite web|title=Kew Scientist 30|date=October 2006|url=https://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927005410/https://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf|archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref>
|-
| Monocot || [[Poaceae]] or Gramineae || [[grass]] || 10,035
|-
| Eudicot || [[Lamiaceae]] or Labiatae || [[mentha|mint]] || 7,175
|-
| Eudicot || [[Euphorbiaceae]] || [[spurge]] || 5,735
|-
| Eudicot || [[Melastomataceae]] || [[Melastoma|melastome]] || 5,005
|-
| Eudicot || [[Myrtaceae]] || [[Myrtus|myrtle]] || 4,625
|-
| Eudicot || [[Apocynaceae]] || [[dogbane]] || 4,555
|-
| Monocot || [[Cyperaceae]] || [[sedge]] || 4,350
|-
| Eudicot || [[Malvaceae]] || [[Malva|mallow]] || 4,225
|-
| Monocot || [[Araceae]] || [[arum]] || 4,025
|-
| Eudicot || [[Ericaceae]] || [[Erica (plant)|heath]] || 3,995
|-
| Eudicot || [[Gesneriaceae]] || [[gesneria]]d || 3,870
|-
| Eudicot || [[Apiaceae]] or Umbelliferae || [[parsley]] || 3,780
|-
| Eudicot || [[Brassicaceae]] or Cruciferae || [[cabbage]] || 3,710
|-
| Magnoliid dicot || [[Piperaceae]] || [[Piper (genus)|pepper]] || 3,600
|-
| Monocot || [[Bromeliaceae]] || [[bromelia]]d || 3,540
|-
| Eudicot || [[Acanthaceae]] || [[Acanthus (plant)|acanthus]] || 3,500
|-
| Eudicot || [[Rosaceae]] || [[rose]] || 2,830
|-
| Eudicot || [[Boraginaceae]] || [[borage]] || 2,740
|-
| Eudicot || [[Urticaceae]] || [[Urtica dioica|nettle]] || 2,625
|-
| Eudicot || [[Ranunculaceae]] || [[buttercup]] || 2,525
|-
| Magnoliid dicot || [[Lauraceae]] || [[Laurus|laurel]] || 2,500
|}
== Evolution ==
=== History of classification ===
{{main|Plant taxonomy}}
[[File:Ehret-Methodus Plantarum Sexualis.jpg|thumb|upright|From 1736, an illustration of Linnaean classification]]
The botanical term "angiosperm", from Greek words {{lang|grc-Latn|angeíon}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|ἀγγεῖον}} 'bottle, vessel') and {{lang|grc-Latn|spérma}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|σπέρμα}} 'seed'), was coined in the form "Angiospermae" by [[Paul Hermann (botanist)|Paul Hermann]] in 1690, including only flowering plants whose seeds were enclosed in capsules.{{sfn|Balfour|Rendle|1911|p=9}} The term angiosperm fundamentally changed in meaning in 1827 with [[Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)|Robert Brown]], when angiosperm came to mean a seed plant with enclosed ovules.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Robert |chapter=Character and description of ''Kingia'', a new genus of plants found on the southwest coast of New Holland: with observations on the structure of its unimpregnated ovulum; and on the female flower of Cycadeae and Coniferae |pages=534–565 |chapter-url={{Google books|RjdCAAAAIAAJ|page=534|plainurl=yes}} |editor=King, Philip Parker |title=Narrative of a Survey of the Intertropical and Western Coasts of Australia: Performed Between the Years 1818 and 1822 |date=1827 |publisher=J. Murray |oclc=185517977 }}</ref><ref name="Buggs 22–36">{{Cite journal |last=Buggs |first=Richard J.A. |date=January 2021 |title=The origin of Darwin's "abominable mystery" |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=108 |issue=1 |pages=22–36 |doi=10.1002/ajb2.1592 |pmid=33482683 |s2cid=231689158 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 1851, with [[Wilhelm Friedrich Benedikt Hofmeister|Wilhelm Hofmeister]]'s work on embryo-sacs, Angiosperm came to have its modern meaning of all the flowering plants including Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons.<ref name="Buggs 22–36"/>{{sfn|Balfour|Rendle|1911|p=10}} The [[APG system]]{{sfn|APG|2009}} treats the flowering plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms). A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank as the subclass Magnoliidae.{{sfn|Chase|Reveal|2009}} From 1998, the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] (APG) has reclassified the angiosperms, with updates in the [[APG II system]] in 2003,{{sfn|APG|2003}} the [[APG III system]] in 2009,{{sfn|APG|2009}}<ref>{{cite press release |title=As easy as APG III – Scientists revise the system of classifying flowering plants |publisher=The Linnean Society of London |url=https://www.linnean.org/index.php?id=448 |access-date=2 October 2009 |date=8 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126092206/https://www.linnean.org/index.php?id=448 |archive-date=26 November 2010}}</ref> and the [[APG IV system]] in 2016.{{sfn|APG|2016}}
=== Phylogeny ===
==== External ====
In 2019, a [[Molecular phylogenetics|molecular phylogeny]] of [[plant]]s placed the flowering plants in their evolutionary context:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leebens-Mack |first1=M. |last2=Barker |first2=M. |last3=Carpenter |first3=E. |author4-link=Michael Deyholos |last4=Deyholos |first4=M. K. |last5=Gitzendammer |first5=M. A. |last6=Graham |first6=S.W. |last7=Grosse |first7=I. |last8=Li |first8=Zheng |display-authors=3 |title=One thousand plant transcriptomes and the phylogenomics of green plants |journal=Nature |volume=574 |issue=7780 |year=2019 |pages=679–685 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1693-2 |pmid=31645766 |pmc=6872490 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
{{clade
|label1= [[Embryophyte]]s
|sublabel1= land plants
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1= [[Bryophyte]]s [[File:WWB-0265-127-Polytrichum formosum.png|20px]]
|label2= [[Tracheophyte]]s
|sublabel2= vascular plants
|2={{clade
|1=[[Lycophyte]]s [[File:Lycopodium clavatum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-219 (extracted).jpg|50px]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Fern]]s [[File:The ferns of Great Britain, and their allies the club-mosses, pepperworts, and horsetails (Pl. 12) (8516512808).jpg|40px]]
|label2= [[Spermatophyte]]s
|sublabel2= seed plants
|2={{clade
|label1= [[Gymnosperm]]s
|sublabel1= conifers and allies
|1= [[File:Pinus montesumae tab22 2.jpg|50px]]
|label2= '''Angiosperms'''
|sublabel2= '''flowering plants'''
|2= [[File:160 Ranunculus repens.jpg|50px]]
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
==== Internal ====
The main groups of living angiosperms are:<ref>{{cite journal |last=Guo |first=Xing |title=Chloranthus genome provides insights into the early diversification of angiosperms |journal=Nature Communications |date=26 November 2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=6930 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-26922-4 |pmid=34836973 |pmc=8626473 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.6930G |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{sfn|APG|2016}}
{{barlabel |size=20
|at1=4 |label1=[[Basal angiosperms]]
|at2=14 |label2=[[Core angiosperms]]
|cladogram={{clade|style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%
|label1=''' Angiosperms '''
|1={{clade
|1=[[Amborellales]] [[File:Amborella trichopoda.jpg|70px]] 1 sp. [[New Caledonia]] shrub |barbegin1=red
|2={{clade
|1=[[Nymphaeales]] [[File:2007 nymphaea lotus.jpg|70px]] c. 80 spp.<ref name="Palmer-2004">{{cite journal |last1=Palmer |first1=Jeffrey D. |last2=Soltis |first2=Douglas E. |last3=Chase |first3=Mark W. |title=The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1437–45 |date=October 2004 |pmid=21652302 |doi=10.3732/ajb.91.10.1437 |doi-access=free }}, [https://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/91/10/1437/F2 Figure 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110202073937/http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/full/91/10/1437/F2 |date=2 February 2011 }}</ref> [[Nymphaeaceae|water lilies]] & allies |bar1=red
|2={{clade
|1=[[Austrobaileyales]] [[File:Schisandra rubriflora.jpg|70px]] c. 100 spp.<ref name="Palmer-2004"/> woody plants |barend1=red
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Magnoliids]] [[File:Magnolia obovata 02.jpg|70px]] c. 10,000 spp.<ref name="Palmer-2004"/> [[merosity|3-part]] flowers, 1-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves |barbegin1=green
|2=[[Chloranthales]] [[File:Sarcandra_glabra2.jpg|70px]] 77 spp.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Christenhusz |first1=Maarten J. M. |last2=Fay |first2=Michael F. |last3=Chase |first3=Mark W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LLo7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA114 |title=Plants of the World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Vascular Plants |isbn=978-0-226-52292-0 |page=114 |date=2017 |publisher=University of Chicago Press }}</ref> Woody, apetalous |bar2=green
}}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Monocots]] [[File:White orchid in Clara bog. 03.jpg|45px]] c. 70,000 spp.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Massoni |first1=Julien |last2=Couvreur |first2=Thomas L.P. |last3=Sauquet |first3=Hervé |date=2015-03-18 |title=Five major shifts of diversification through the long evolutionary history of Magnoliidae (angiosperms) |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=49 |doi=10.1186/s12862-015-0320-6 |pmc=4377182 |pmid=25887386 |bibcode=2015BMCEE..15...49M |doi-access=free }}</ref> 3-part flowers, 1 [[cotyledon]], 1-pore pollen, usu. parallel-veined leaves |bar1=green
|2={{clade
|1=[[Ceratophyllales]] [[File:CeratophyllumSubmersum.jpg|70px]] c. 6 spp.<ref name="Palmer-2004"/> [[aquatic plant]]s |bar1=green
|2=[[Eudicots]] [[File:Senecio_angulatus_003.jpg|70px]] c. 175,000 spp.<ref name="Palmer-2004"/> 4- or 5-part flowers, 3-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves |barend2=green
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
<!------------------- collapsible element containing large cladogram of APG IV phylogeny --------------->
{|class="collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%; border:solid 1px #aaa"
|-
! style="background:#F0F2F5" |Detailed [[Cladogram]] of the 2016 [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] (APG) IV classification.{{sfn|APG|2016}}
|-
|
{{clade|style=font-size:80%;line-height:80%
|label1='''Angiosperms'''
|1={{clade
|1=[[Amborellales]] <small>Melikyan, Bobrov & Zaytzeva 1999</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Nymphaeales]] <small>Salisbury ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Austrobaileyales]] <small>Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992</small>
|label2=[[Mesangiosperms]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Chloranthales]] <small>Mart. 1835</small>
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Magnoliids]] <!--insert dummy clade for spacing-->
|1={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Canellales]] <small>Cronquist 1957</small>
|2=[[Piperales]] <small>von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
}}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Magnoliales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2=[[Laurales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
}}
}}
}}
|3={{clade
|1={{clade
|label1=[[Monocots]] <!--insert dummy clade-->
|1={{clade
|1=[[Acorales]] <small>Link 1835</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Alismatales]] <small>Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Petrosaviales]] <small>Takhtajan 1997</small>
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Dioscoreales]] <small>Brown 1835</small>
|2=[[Pandanales]] <small>Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
}}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Liliales]] <small>Perleb 1826</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Asparagales]] <small>Link 1829</small>
|label2=[[Commelinids]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Arecales]] <small>Bromhead 1840</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Poales]] <small>Small 1903</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Zingiberales]] <small>Grisebach 1854</small>
|2=[[Commelinales]] <small>de Mirbel ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Ceratophyllales]] <small>Link 1829</small>
|label2=[[Eudicots]]
|2=EUDICOTS <!--target keyword that will be substituted by Eudicot subtree (see below)-->
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|targetA=EUDICOTS
|subcladeA= {{clade
|1=[[Ranunculales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Proteales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Trochodendrales]] <small>Takhtajan ex Cronquist 1981</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Buxales]] <small>Takhtajan ex Reveal 1996</small>
|label2=[[Core eudicots]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Gunnerales]] <small>Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Dilleniales]] <small>de Candolle ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|label2=[[Superrosids]]
|2=SUPERROSIDS
|label3=[[Superasterids]]
|3=SUPERASTERIDS
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|targetB=SUPERROSIDS
|subcladeB= {{clade
|1=[[Saxifragales]] <small>von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|label2=[[Rosids]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Vitales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|label1=Fabids |sublabel1=(eurosids I)
|1={{clade
|1=[[Zygophyllales]] <small>Link 1829</small>
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Celastrales]] <small>Link 1829</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Oxalidales]] <small>von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2=[[Malpighiales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
}}
}}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Fabales]] <small>Bromhead 1838</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Rosales]] <small>von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Cucurbitales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2=[[Fagales]] <small>Engler 1892</small>
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|label2=Malvids |sublabel2=(eurosids II)
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=[[Geraniales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2=[[Myrtales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
}}
|2={{clade
|1=[[Crossosomatales]] <small>Takhtajan ex Reveal 1993</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Picramniales]] <small>Doweld 2001</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Sapindales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Huerteales]] <small>Doweld 2001</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Malvales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2=[[Brassicales]] <small>Bromhead 1838</small>
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|targetC=SUPERASTERIDS
|subcladeC= {{clade
|1=[[Berberidopsidales]] <small>Doweld 2001</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Santalales]] <small>Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Caryophyllales]]
|label2=[[Asterids]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Cornales]] <small>Link 1829</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Ericales]] <small>von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2={{clade
|label1=Lamiids |sublabel1=(euasterids I)
|1={{clade
|1=[[Icacinales]] <small>Van Tieghem 1900</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Metteniusales]] <small>Takhtajan 1997</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Garryales]] <small>Mart. 1835</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Gentianales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|2=[[Solanales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|3=[[Boraginales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
|4=[[Vahliales]] <small>Doweld 2001</small>
|5=[[Lamiales]] <small>Bromhead 1838</small>
}}
}}
}}
}}
|label2=Campanulids |sublabel2=(euasterids II)
|2={{clade
|1=[[Aquifoliales]] <small>Senft 1856</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Escalloniales]] <small>Mart. 1835</small>
|2=[[Asterales]] <small>Link 1829</small>
|3={{clade
|1=[[Bruniales]] <small>Dumortier 1829</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Apiales]] <small>Nakai 1930</small>
|2={{clade
|1=[[Paracryphiales]] <small>Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992</small>
|2=[[Dipsacales]] <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
|}
In 2024, Alexandre R. Zuntini and colleagues constructed a tree of some 6,000 flowering plant genera, representing some 60% of the existing genera, on the basis of analysis of 353 nuclear genes in each specimen. Much of the existing phylogeny is confirmed; the [[Rosidae|rosid]] phylogeny is revised.<ref name="Zuntini et al 2024">{{cite journal |last1=Zuntini |first1=Alexandre R. |last2=Carruthers |first2=Tom |last3=Maurin |first3=Olivier |last4=Bailey |first4=Paul C. |last5=Leempoel |first5=Kevin |last6=Brewer |first6=Grace E. |display-authors=etal <!-- 279 authors--> |title=Phylogenomics and the rise of the angiosperms |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=24 April 2024 |issn=0028-0836 |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-07324-0|pmid=38658746 }}<!--images are CC-by-SA--></ref>
[[File:Tree of Angiosperm Phylogeny 2024.jpg|thumb|center|upright=3|Tree of Angiosperm Phylogeny 2024]]
=== Fossil history ===
{{main|Fossil history of flowering plants}}
[[File:Sagaria cilentana (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Adaptive radiation]] in the [[Cretaceous]] created many flowering plants, such as ''[[Sagaria]]'' in the [[Ranunculaceae]].]]
Fossilised [[spore]]s suggest that land plants ([[embryophyte]]s) have existed for at least 475 million years.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Edwards |first=D. |title=The role of mid-palaeozoic mesofossils in the detection of early bryophytes |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |volume=355 |issue=1398 |pages=733–54; discussion 754–5 |date=June 2000 |pmid=10905607 |pmc=1692787 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2000.0613 }}</ref> However, angiosperms [[abominable mystery|appear suddenly]] and in great diversity in the fossil record in the Early Cretaceous (~130 mya).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Herendeen |first1=Patrick S. |last2=Friis |first2=Else Marie |last3=Pedersen |first3=Kaj Raunsgaard |last4=Crane |first4=Peter R. |date=2017-03-03 |title=Palaeobotanical redux: revisiting the age of the angiosperms |url=https://rdcu.be/c0Zhm |journal=Nature Plants |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=17015 |doi=10.1038/nplants.2017.15 |pmid=28260783 |s2cid=205458714 |issn=2055-0278}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Friedman |first=William E. |date=January 2009 |title=The meaning of Darwin's "abominable mystery" |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3732/ajb.0800150 |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=5–21 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800150 |pmid=21628174}}</ref> Claimed records of flowering plants prior to this are not widely accepted.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bateman |first=Richard M |date=2020-01-01 |editor-last=Ort |editor-first=Donald |title=Hunting the Snark: the flawed search for mythical Jurassic angiosperms |url=https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/71/1/22/5571867 |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |language=en |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=22–35 |doi=10.1093/jxb/erz411 |pmid=31538196 |issn=0022-0957}}</ref> Molecular evidence suggests that the ancestors of angiosperms diverged from the gymnosperms during the late [[Devonian]], about 365 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stull |first1=Gregory W. |last2=Qu |first2=Xiao-Jian |last3=Parins-Fukuchi |first3=Caroline |last4=Yang |first4=Ying-Ying |last5=Yang |first5=Jun-Bo |last6=Yang |first6=Zhi-Yun |last7=Hu |first7=Yi |last8=Ma |first8=Hong |last9=Soltis |first9=Pamela S. |last10=Soltis |first10=Douglas E. |last11=Li |first11=De-Zhu |display-authors=3 |date=July 19, 2021 |title=Gene duplications and phylogenomic conflict underlie major pulses of phenotypic evolution in gymnosperms |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-021-00964-4 |journal=Nature Plants |volume=7|issue=8 |pages=1015–1025 |doi=10.1038/s41477-021-00964-4 |pmid=34282286 |s2cid=236141481 |access-date=10 January 2022 |archive-date=10 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110174725/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-021-00964-4/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The origin time of the crown group of flowering plants remains contentious.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sauquet |first1=Hervé |last2=Ramírez-Barahona |first2=Santiago |last3=Magallón |first3=Susana |date=2022-06-24 |editor-last=Melzer |editor-first=Rainer |title=What is the age of flowering plants? |url=https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/73/12/3840/6570702 |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |language=en |volume=73 |issue=12 |pages=3840–3853 |doi=10.1093/jxb/erac130 |pmid=35438718 |issn=0022-0957}}</ref> By the Late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by [[fern]]s and [[gymnosperm]]s. Large canopy-forming trees replaced [[conifer]]s as the dominant trees close to the end of the Cretaceous, 66 million years ago.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sadava |first1=David |last2=Heller |first2=H. Craig |last3=Orians |first3=Gordon H. |last4=Purves |first4=William K. |last5=Hillis |first5=David M. |display-authors=3 |title=Life: the science of biology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1m0_FLEjd-cC&pg=PA477 |access-date=4 August 2010 |date=December 2006 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-7167-7674-1 |pages=477– |archive-date=23 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111223082952/http://books.google.com/books?id=1m0_FLEjd-cC&pg=PA477|url-status=live}}</ref> The radiation of herbaceous angiosperms occurred much later.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stewart |first1=Wilson Nichols |last2=Rothwell |first2=Gar W. |title=Paleobotany and the evolution of plants |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1993 |page=498 |isbn=978-0-521-23315-6 }}</ref> In April 2024, scientists reported an overview of the origin and development of flowering plants over the years based on extensive genetic studies.<ref name="NYT-20240511">{{cite news |last=Greenwood |first=Veronique |title=A New Tree of Flowering Plants? For Spring? Groundbreaking. - By sequencing an enormous amount of data, a group of hundreds of researchers has gained new insights into how flowers evolved on Earth. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/11/science/a-new-tree-of-flowering-plants-for-spring-groundbreaking.html |date=11 May 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://archive.ph/ioYgR |archivedate=11 May 2024 |accessdate=12 May 2024 }}</ref><ref name="NAT-20240424">{{cite journal |author=Zuntini, Alexandre R. |display-authors=et al. |title=Phylogenomics and the rise of the angiosperms |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07324-0 |date=24 April 2024 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1038/s41586-024-07324-0 |pmid=38658746 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://archive.ph/wip/rQu6X |archivedate=12 May 2024 |accessdate=12 May 2024 }}</ref>
== Reproduction ==
=== Flowers ===
{{main|Flower|Plant reproductive morphology}}
[[File:Angiosperm life cycle diagram-en.svg|thumb|upright=2|Angiosperm [[flower]] showing [[Plant reproductive morphology|reproductive parts]] and life cycle]]
The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Its function is to ensure [[Fertilisation|fertilization]] of the [[ovule]] and development of [[fruit]] containing [[seed]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Willson |first=Mary F. |date=1 June 1979 |title=Sexual Selection in Plants |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/283437 |journal=[[The American Naturalist]] |volume=113 |issue=6 |pages=777–790 |doi=10.1086/283437 |s2cid=84970789 |access-date=9 November 2021 |archive-date=9 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109164204/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/283437|url-status=live}}</ref> It may arise terminally on a shoot or from the [[axil]] of a leaf.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bredmose |first=N. |title=Encyclopedia of Rose Science |chapter=Growth Regulation: Axillary Bud Growth |publisher=Elsevier |year=2003 |doi=10.1016/b0-12-227620-5/00017-3 |pages=374–381|isbn=9780122276200 }}</ref> The flower-bearing part of the plant is usually sharply distinguished from the leaf-bearing part, and forms a branch-system called an [[inflorescence]].{{sfn|Balfour|Rendle|1911|p=10}}
Flowers produce two kinds of reproductive cells. [[Microspore]]s, which divide to become [[pollen|pollen grains]], are the male cells; they are borne in the [[stamen]]s.<ref name="Salisbury-1970">{{cite book |last1=Salisbury |first1=Frank B. |chapter=Sexual Reproduction |date=1970 |title=Vascular Plants: Form and Function |pages=185–195 |editor-last=Salisbury |editor-first=Frank B. |series=Fundamentals of Botany Series |location=London |publisher=Macmillan Education |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-00364-8_13 |isbn=978-1-349-00364-8 |last2=Parke |first2=Robert V. |editor2-last=Parke |editor2-first=Robert V.}}</ref> The female cells, [[megaspore]]s, [[megagametogenesis|divide to become the egg cell]]. They are contained in the [[ovule]] and enclosed in the [[carpel]]; one or more carpels form the [[pistil]].<ref name="Salisbury-1970" />
The flower may consist only of these parts, as in [[Anemophily|wind-pollinated]] plants like the [[willow]], where each flower comprises only a few [[stamen]]s or two carpels.{{sfn|Balfour|Rendle|1911|p=10}} In [[Entomophily|insect-]] or [[Ornithophily|bird-pollinated]] plants, other structures protect the [[sporophyll]]s and attract pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding structures are known as [[sepal]]s and [[petal]]s (or [[tepal]]s in flowers such as ''[[Magnolia]]'' where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud.{{Sfn|De Craene|P.|2010|p=7}}{{Sfn|D. Mauseth|2016|p=225}} The inner series (corolla of petals) is, in general, white or brightly colored, is more delicate in structure, and attracts pollinators by colour, [[Floral scent|scent]], and [[nectar]].{{Sfn|De Craene|P.|2010|p=8}}{{Sfn|D. Mauseth|2016|p=226}}
Most flowers are [[Hermaphrodite#Plants|hermaphroditic]], producing both pollen and ovules in the same flower, but some use other devices to reduce self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have carpels and stamens of differing lengths, so animal [[pollinator]]s cannot easily transfer pollen between them. Homomorphic flowers may use a biochemical [[Self-incompatibility in plants|self-incompatibility]] to discriminate between self and non-self pollen grains. [[Dioecious]] plants such as [[holly]] have male and female flowers on separate plants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ainsworth |first=C. |date=August 2000 |title=Boys and Girls Come Out to Play: The Molecular Biology of Dioecious Plants |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=86 |issue=2 |pages=211–221 |doi=10.1006/anbo.2000.1201 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Monoecious]] plants have separate male and female flowers on the same plant; these are often wind-pollinated,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Batygina |first=T.B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4VOWDwAAQBAJ&q=monoecy&pg=PA43 |title=Embryology of Flowering Plants: Terminology and Concepts, Vol. 3: Reproductive Systems |date=2019 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4398-4436-6 |page=43}}</ref> as in [[maize]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Bortiri | first1=E. | last2=Hake | first2=S. | title=Flowering and determinacy in maize | journal=Journal of Experimental Botany | publisher=Oxford University Press (OUP) | volume=58 | issue=5 | date=2007-01-13 | issn=0022-0957 | doi=10.1093/jxb/erm015 | pages=909–916| pmid=17337752 }}</ref> but include some insect-pollinated plants such as ''[[Cucurbita]]'' squashes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mabberley |first=D. J. |year=2008 |title=The Plant Book: A Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-82071-4 |page=235}}</ref><ref>{{efloras|2|108644 |access-date=February 21, 2015}}</ref>
=== Fertilisation and embryogenesis ===
{{main|Fertilization|Plant embryogenesis}}
[[Double fertilization]] requires two sperm cells to fertilise cells in the ovule. A [[pollen]] grain sticks to the stigma at the top of the pistil, germinates, and grows a long [[pollen tube]]. A haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid (''n'') sperm cells. The pollen tube grows from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary. When it reaches the micropyle of the ovule, it digests its way into one of the synergids, releasing its contents including the sperm cells. The synergid that the cells were released into degenerates; one sperm makes its way to fertilise the egg cell, producing a diploid (2''n'') zygote. The second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3''n'') cell. The zygote develops into an embryo; the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, the embryo's food supply. The ovary develops into a fruit. and each ovule into a seed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Berger |first=F. |date=January 2008 |title=Double-fertilization, from myths to reality |journal=Sexual Plant Reproduction |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=3–5 |doi=10.1007/s00497-007-0066-4 |s2cid=8928640 }}</ref>
=== Fruit and seed ===
[[File:Aesculus hippocastanum fruit.jpg|thumb|The fruit of the [[Aesculus hippocastanum|horse chestnut]] tree, showing the large seed inside the fruit, which is [[Dehiscence (botany)|dehiscing or splitting open]]. ]]
{{main|Fruit|Seed}}
As the embryo and endosperm develop, the wall of the embryo sac enlarges and combines with the [[nucellus]] and [[integument]] to form the ''seed coat''. The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or [[pericarp]], whose form is closely associated with type of seed dispersal system.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Eriksson |first=O. |title=Evolution of Seed Size and Biotic Seed Dispersal in Angiosperms: Paleoecological and Neoecological Evidence |journal=International Journal of Plant Sciences |volume=169 |issue=7 |pages=863–870 |year=2008 |doi=10.1086/589888 |s2cid=52905335 }}</ref>
Other parts of the flower often contribute to forming the fruit. For example, in the [[apple]], the [[hypanthium]] forms the edible flesh, surrounding the ovaries which form the tough cases around the seeds.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fruit Anatomy |url=https://ucanr.edu/sites/btfnp/generaltopics/AnatomyPollination/Fruit_Anatomy/ |publisher=University of California |work=Fruit & Nut Research & Information Center |access-date=|url-status = live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502175636/https://ucanr.edu/sites/btfnp/generaltopics/AnatomyPollination/Fruit_Anatomy/ |archive-date=2 May 2023}}</ref>
[[Apomixis]], setting seed without fertilization, is found naturally in about 2.2% of angiosperm genera.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hojsgaard |first1=D. |last2=Klatt |first2=S. |last3=Baier |first3=R. |last4=Carman |first4=J.G. |last5=Hörandl |first5=E. |display-authors=3 |title=Taxonomy and Biogeography of Apomixis in Angiosperms and Associated Biodiversity Characteristics |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=414–427 |date=September 2014 |pmid=27019547 |pmc=4786830 |doi=10.1080/07352689.2014.898488 |bibcode=2014CRvPS..33..414H }}</ref> Some angiosperms, including many [[citrus]] varieties, are able to produce fruits through a type of apomixis called [[nucellar embryony]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Gentile |first=Alessandra |title=The Citrus Genome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hsPXDwAAQBAJ |date=18 March 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-15308-3 |page=171 |access-date=13 December 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414224058/https://books.google.com/books?id=hsPXDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Sexual selection ===
{{Excerpt|Sexual selection in flowering plants}}
===Adaptive function of flowers===
Charles Darwin in his 1878 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom<ref>Darwin, C. R. 1878. The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. London: John Murray". darwin-online.org.uk</ref> in the initial paragraph of chapter XII noted "The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented." [[Flower]]s emerged in plant evolution as an adaptation for the promotion of cross-[[fertilisation]] ([[outcrossing]]), a process that allows the masking of deleterious [[mutation]]s in the [[genome]] of progeny. The masking effect is known as [[complementation (genetics)|genetic complementation]].<ref name="Bernstein1985">Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep 20;229(4719):1277-81. doi: 10.1126/science.3898363. PMID 3898363</ref> This beneficial effect of cross-fertilisation on progeny is also referred to as [[hybrid vigour|hybrid vigor]] or [[heterosis]]. Once flowers became established in a lineage as an evolutionary adaptation to promote cross-fertilization, subsequent switching to inbreeding usually becomes disadvantageous, in large part because it allows expression of the previously masked deleterious recessive mutations, i.e. [[inbreeding depression]].
Also, [[Meiosis]] in flowering plants provides a direct mechanism for [[DNA repair|repairing DNA]] through genetic recombination in reproductive tissues.<ref name="Horandl2024">Hörandl E. Apomixis and the paradox of sex in plants. Ann Bot. 2024 Mar 18:mcae044. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcae044. Epub ahead of print. PMID 38497809</ref> [[Sexual reproduction]] appears to be required for maintaining long-term [[genome|genomic]] integrity and only infrequent combinations of extrinsic and intrinsic factors permit shifts to asexuality.<ref name = Horandl2024/> Thus the two fundamental aspects of sexual reproduction in flowering plants, cross-fertilization (outcrossing) and meiosis appear to be maintained respectively by the advantages of genetic complementation and recombinational repair.<ref name = Bernstein1985/>
== Interactions with humans ==
{{main|Human uses of plants}}
=== Practical uses ===
[[File:Rice Harvest 2020 - 50248478521.jpg|thumb|Harvesting [[rice]] in Arkansas, 2020]]
[[File:Daal_after_Tadka_Pulse_Soup_India.jpg|thumb|Food from plants: a dish of ''[[Dal tadka]]'', Indian lentil soup]]
[[Agriculture]] is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food and [[livestock]] feed. Much of this food derives from a small number of flowering plant families.<ref name="Dilcher Cronquist 2016">{{cite web |last1=Dilcher |first1=David L. |last2=Cronquist |first2=Arthur |last3=Zimmermann |first3=Martin Huldrych |last4=Stevens |first4=Peter |last5=Stevenson |first5=Dennis William |last6=Berry |first6=Paul E. |author-link2=Arthur Cronquist |author-link4=Peter F. Stevens |title=Angiosperm: Significance to Humans |url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm/Significance-to-humans |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |date=8 March 2016}}</ref> For instance, half of the world's [[calorie]] intake is supplied by just three plants - [[wheat]], [[rice]] and [[maize]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=McKie |first=Robin |date=16 July 2017 |title=Maize, rice, wheat: alarm at rising climate risk to vital crops |newspaper=The Observer |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/jul/15/climate-change-food-famine-study |access-date=30 July 2023 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Major food-providing families<ref name="Dilcher Cronquist 2016"/>
|-
! Family !! English !! Example foods from that family
|-
| [[Poaceae]] || Grasses, cereals || Most feedstocks, inc. [[rice]], [[maize]], [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[rye]], [[oat]]s, [[pearl millet]], [[sugar cane]], [[sorghum]]
|-
| [[Fabaceae]] || Legumes, pea family || [[Pea]]s, [[bean]]s, [[lentils]]; for animal feed, [[clover]], [[alfalfa]]
|-
| [[Solanaceae]] || Nightshade family || [[Potato]]es, [[tomato]]es, [[capsicum|peppers]], [[aubergine]]s
|-
| [[Cucurbitaceae]] || Gourd family || [[Cucurbita|Squashes]], [[cucumber]]s, [[pumpkin]]s, [[melon]]s
|-
| [[Brassicaceae]] || Cabbage family || [[Cabbage]] and its varieties, e.g. [[Brussels sprout]], [[broccoli]]; [[mustard plant|mustard]]; [[rapeseed|oilseed rape]]
|-
| [[Apiaceae]] || Parsley family || [[Parsnip]], [[carrot]], [[parsley]], [[coriander]], [[fennel]], [[cumin]], [[caraway]]
|-
| [[Rutaceae]] || Rue family<ref>{{cite web |title=Rutaceae |url=https://www.botanical-dermatology-database.info/BotDermFolder/RUTA.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719224511/https://www.botanical-dermatology-database.info/BotDermFolder/RUTA.html |archive-date=July 19, 2019 |website=Botanical Dermatology Database}}</ref> || [[Orange (fruit)|Oranges]], [[lemon]]s, [[grapefruit]]s
|-
| [[Rosaceae]] || Rose family<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Shu-Dong |last2=Jin |first2=Jian-Jun |last3=Chen |first3=Si-Yun |last4=Chase |first4=Mark W. |last5=Soltis |first5=Douglas E. |last6=Li |first6=Hong-Tao |last7=Yang |first7=Jun-Bo |last8=Li |first8=De-Zhu |last9=Yi |first9=Ting-Shuang |display-authors=3 |date=2017 |title=Diversification of Rosaceae since the Late Cretaceous based on plastid phylogenomics |journal=New Phytologist |volume=214 |issue=3 |pages=1355–1367 |doi=10.1111/nph.14461 |pmid=28186635 |issn=1469-8137|doi-access=free }}</ref> || [[Apple]]s, [[pear]]s, [[cherry|cherries]], [[apricot]]s, [[plum]]s, [[peach]]es
|}
Flowering plants provide a diverse range of materials in the form of [[wood]], [[paper]], fibers such as [[cotton]], [[flax]], and [[hemp]], [[medicinal plants|medicines]] such as [[digoxin]] and [[opioid]]s, and decorative and landscaping plants. [[Coffee]] and [[hot chocolate]] are beverages from flowering plants.<ref name="Dilcher Cronquist 2016"/>
=== Cultural uses ===
[[File:Kingfisher-iris.jpg|thumb|upright| [[Bird-and-flower painting]]: ''Kingfisher and iris'' ''kachō-e'' woodblock print by Ohara Koson (late 19th century)]]
Both real and [[Fictional plants|fictitious plants]] play a wide variety of [[List of fictional plants|roles in literature and film]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Literary Plants |journal=Nature Plants |date=2015 |volume=1 |issue=11 |page=15181 |doi=10.1038/nplants.2015.181 |pmid=27251545 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Flowers are the subjects of many poems by poets such as [[William Blake]], [[Robert Frost]], and [[Rabindranath Tagore]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Flower Poems |url=http://www.poemhunter.com/poems/flower/ |website=Poem Hunter |access-date=21 June 2016}}</ref> [[Bird-and-flower painting]] ({{Transliteration|zh|Huaniaohua}}) is a kind of [[Chinese painting]] that celebrates the beauty of flowering plants.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nature's Song: Chinese Bird and Flower Paintings |url=https://museum.wales/cardiff/whatson/9245/Natures-Song-Traditional-Chinese-Bird-and-Flower-Paintings-/ |access-date=2022-08-04 |website=Museum Wales |language=en |archive-date=4 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220804231344/https://museum.wales/cardiff/whatson/9245/Natures-Song-Traditional-Chinese-Bird-and-Flower-Paintings-/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Flowers have been [[language of flowers|used in literature to convey meaning]] by authors including [[William Shakespeare]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Language of Flowers |url=http://www.folger.edu/template.cfm?cid=3192 |publisher=Folger Shakespeare Library |access-date=2013-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140919185926/http://www.folger.edu/template.cfm?cid=3192 |archive-date=2014-09-19 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
Flowers are used in a variety of art forms which arrange cut or living plants, such as [[bonsai]], [[ikebana]], and flower arranging. [[Ornamental plant]]s have sometimes changed the course of history, as in [[tulip mania|tulipomania]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Lambert |first=Tim |title=A Brief History of Gardening |url=http://www.localhistories.org/gardening.html |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]] |access-date=21 June 2016 |date=2014}}</ref> Many countries and regions have [[floral emblem]]s; a survey of 70 of these found that the most popular flowering plant family<!--Figure 9 in the source--> for such emblems is Orchidaceae at 15.7% (11 emblems), followed by Fabaceae at 10% (7 emblems), and Asparagaceae, Asteraceae, and Rosaceae all at 5.7% (4 emblems each).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lim |first1=Reuben |last2=Tan |first2=Heok |last3=Tan |first3=Hugh |year=2013 |title=Official Biological Emblems of the World <!--online--> |publisher=[[Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-9-8107-4147-1 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283008038}}</ref>
=== Conservation ===
{{further|Conservation biology|Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity}}
[[File:Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG|thumb|left|upright=0.9|[[Viola calcarata]], a species highly vulnerable to climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Block |first1=Sebastián |last2=Maechler |first2=Marc-Jacques |last3=Levine |first3=Jacob I. |last4=Alexander |first4=Jake M. |last5=Pellissier |first5=Loïc |last6=Levine |first6=Jonathan M. |date=26 August 2022 |title=Ecological lags govern the pace and outcome of plant community responses to 21st-century climate change |journal=Ecology Letters |volume=25 |issue=10 |pages=2156–2166 |doi=10.1111/ele.14087 |pmid=36028464 |pmc=9804264 |bibcode=2022EcolL..25.2156B }}</ref>]]
[[Human impact on the environment]] has driven a range of species extinct and [[Holocene extinction|is threatening even more today]]. Multiple organizations such as [[IUCN]] and [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] suggest that around 40% of plant species are threatened with extinction.<ref name="Lughadha2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Lughadha |first1=Eimear Nic|last2=Bachman |first2=Steven P. |last3=Leão |first3=Tarciso C. C. |last4=Forest |first4=Félix |last5=Halley |first5=John M. |last6=Moat |first6=Justin |last7=Acedo|first7=Carmen |last8=Bacon |first8=Karen L. |last9=Brewer |first9=Ryan F. A. |last10=Gâteblé |first10=Gildas |last11=Gonçalves |first11=Susana C.|last12=Govaerts |first12=Rafaël |last13=Hollingsworth |first13=Peter M. |last14=Krisai-Greilhuber |first14=Irmgard |last15=de Lirio |first15=Elton J. |last16=Moore |first16=Paloma G. P. |last17=Negrão |first17=Raquel |last18=Onana |first18=Jean Michel |last19=Rajaovelona |first19=Landy R. |last20=Razanajatovo |first20=Henintsoa |last21=Reich |first21=Peter B. |last22=Richards |first22=Sophie L. |last23=Rivers |first23=Malin C. |last24=Cooper |first24=Amanda |last25=Iganci |first25=João |last26=Lewis |first26=Gwilym P. |last27=Smidt |first27=Eric C. |last28=Antonelli |first28=Alexandre |last29=Mueller |first29=Gregory M. |last30=Walker |first30=Barnaby E. |date=29 September 2020 |title=Extinction risk and threats to plants and fungi |journal=Plants People Planet |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=389–408 |doi=10.1002/ppp3.10146 |s2cid=225274409 |doi-access=free |hdl=10316/101227 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The majority are threatened by [[Habitat destruction|habitat loss]], but activities such as logging of wild timber trees and collection of medicinal plants, or the introduction of non-native [[invasive species]], also play a role.<ref name="BGCI 2023"/>
Relatively few plant diversity assessments currently consider [[climate change]],<ref name="Lughadha2020" /> yet it is [[Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity|starting to impact plants]] as well. About 3% of flowering plants are very likely to be driven extinct within a century at {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} of global warming, and 10% at {{convert|3.2|C-change|F-change}}.<ref>Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat et al. (2022) [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter02.pdf Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services] in {{cite book | title=Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | chapter=Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services | publisher=Cambridge University Press | date=2023 | isbn=978-1-009-32584-4 | doi=10.1017/9781009325844.004 | pages=197–378 |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/}}</ref> In worst-case scenarios, half of all tree species may be driven extinct by climate change over that timeframe.<ref name="Lughadha2020" />
Conservation in this context is the attempt to prevent extinction, whether ''[[in situ]]'' by protecting plants and their habitats in the wild, or ''[[Ex situ conservation|ex situ]]'' in [[seed bank]]s or as living plants.<ref name="BGCI 2023">{{cite web |title=Botanic Gardens and Plant Conservation |url=https://www.bgci.org/about/botanic-gardens-and-plant-conservation/ |website=Botanic Gardens Conservation International |access-date=19 July 2023}}</ref> Some 3000 [[botanic gardens]] around the world maintain living plants, including over 40% of the species known to be threatened, as an "insurance policy against extinction in the wild."<ref>{{cite web |title=Plant Conservation Around the World |url=https://www.botanic.cam.ac.uk/festival-of-plants-2020/fop-day3-conservation/plant-conservation-around-the-world/ |website=Cambridge University Botanic Garden |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=2020}}</ref> The [[United Nations]]' [[Global Strategy for Plant Conservation]] asserts that "without plants, there is no life".<ref name="CBD 2023"/> It aims to "halt the continuing loss of plant diversity" throughout the world.<ref name="CBD 2023">{{cite web |title=Updated Global Strategy for Plant Conservation 2011-2020 |url=https://www.cbd.int/gspc/ |website=Convention on Biological Diversity |access-date=19 July 2023 |date=3 July 2023}}</ref>{{Clear}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==Bibliography==
===Articles, books and chapters===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{EB1911 |wstitle=Angiosperms |volume=2 |pages=9–14 |first1=Isaac Bayley |last1=Balfour |author-link1=Isaac Bayley Balfour |first2=Alfred Barton |last2=Rendle |author-link2=Alfred Barton Rendle}}
* {{cite journal |last=APG |author-link=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group |journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]] |volume=141 |pages=399–436 |year=2003 |title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II |doi=10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x |issue=4 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=APG |author-link=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group |year=2009 |title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III |journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]] |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=105–121 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x |doi-access=free|hdl=10654/18083 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{Cite journal |last=APG |author-link=Angiosperm Phylogeny Group |year=2016 |title=An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV |journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]] |volume=181 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi= 10.1111/boj.12385 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Becker |first1=Kenneth M. |title=A Comparison of Angiosperm Classification Systems |journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]] |date=February 1973 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=19–50 |doi=10.2307/1218032 |jstor=1218032 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bell |first1=Adrian D. |title=Plant Form. An Illustrated Guide to Flowering Plant Morphology |date=2008 |orig-date=1991 |publisher=Timber Press |location=Portland, Oregon |isbn=978-0-88192-850-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SM3khPHXhKEC |ref=none}}
** [https://archive.org/details/plantform00adri 1st edition published by Oxford University Press in 1991] {{ISBN |978-0-19854-219-3}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=C.D. |last2=Soltis |first2=D.E. |last3=Soltis |first3=P.S. |author-link3=Pamela S. Soltis |author-link2=Douglas Soltis |year=2010 |title=The Age and Diversification of the Angiosperms Revisited |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |volume=97 |issue=8 |pages=1296–1303 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0900346 |pmid=21616882 |s2cid=207613985 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chase |first1=Mark W. |last2=Reveal |first2=James L. |year=2009 |title=A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=122–127 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.x |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite book |last1=De Craene |first1=Ronse |last2=P.|first2=Louis|title=Floral Diagrams |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-511-80671-1 |location=Cambridge|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511806711 }}
* Cromie, William J. (December 16, 1999). [https://web.archive.org/web/20030714120417/http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/12.16/angiosperms.html "Oldest Known Flowering Plants Identified By Genes"]. Harvard University Gazette.
* {{cite journal |last1=Cronquist |first1=Arthur |author-link=Arthur Cronquist |title=The divisions and classes of plants |journal=The Botanical Review |date=October 1960 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=425–482 |doi=10.1007/BF02940572 |bibcode=1960BotRv..26..425C |s2cid=43144314}}
* {{cite book |last=Cronquist |first= Arthur |author-link=Arthur Cronquist |year=1981 |title=An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/integratedsystem0000cron |url-access=registration |publisher=Columbia Univ. Press |location= New York |isbn= 978-0-231-03880-5 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dahlgren |first1=R. M. T. |author-link=Rolf Dahlgren |title=A revised system of classification of the angiosperms |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |date=February 1980 |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=91–124 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1980.tb01661.x |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dahlgren |first1=Rolf |author-link=Rolf Dahlgren |title=General aspects of angiosperm evolution and macrosystematics |journal=Nordic Journal of Botany |date=February 1983 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=119–149 |doi=10.1111/j.1756-1051.1983.tb01448.x |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dilcher |first1=D. |doi=10.1073/pnas.97.13.7030 |pmid=10860967 |title=Toward a new synthesis: Major evolutionary trends in the angiosperm fossil record |year=2000 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=97 |issue=13 |pages=7030–7036 |pmc=34380 |bibcode=2000PNAS...97.7030D |doi-access=free |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Heywood |first1=V. H. |author2=Brummitt, R. K. |author3=Culham, A. |author4=Seberg, O. |title=Flowering Plant Families of the World |publisher=Firefly Books |year=2007 |location=Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada |isbn=978-1-55407-206-4 |ref=none}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Hill |first1=Christopher |last2=Crane |first2=Peter |editor-last1=Joysey |editor-first1=Kenneth Alan |editor-last2=Friday |editor-first2=A.E. |encyclopedia=Problems of Phylogenetic Reconstruction |title=Evolutionary Cladistics and the origin of Angiosperms |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275374707 |date=January 1982 |publisher=Systematics Association |series=Special Volumes |volume=21 |location=London |isbn=978-0-12-391250-3 |pages=269–361 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lersten |first1=Nels R. |title=Flowering plant embryology with emphasis on economic species |date=2004 |publisher=Blackwell Pub. |location=Ames, Iowa |isbn=978-0-470-75267-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2YbwF7tH6dUC |ref=none}}
*{{cite book|last=D. Mauseth|first=James|title=Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|year=2016|isbn=978-1-284-07753-7|edition=6th }}
* {{cite book |last1=Pooja |first1=<!--Not stated, the printed book just says "Dr. Pooja"--> |title=Angiosperms |date=2004 |publisher=Discovery |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-7141-788-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3pZxuyUllJIC |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Raven |first1=P.H. |last2=Evert |first2=R.F. |last3=Eichhorn |first3=S.E. |title=Biology of Plants |edition=7th |publisher=W.H. Freeman |year=2004 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Sattler |first=R. |year=1973 |title=Organogenesis of Flowers. A Photographic Text-Atlas |publisher=University of Toronto Press |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Simpson |first=Michael G. |title=Plant Systematics |year=2010 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-08-092208-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dj8KRImgyf4C |edition=2nd |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Soltis |first1=Pamela S |last2=Soltis |first2=Douglas E |author-link1=Pamela Soltis |author-link2=Douglas Soltis |title=Ancient WGD events as drivers of key innovations in angiosperms |journal=[[Current Opinion in Plant Biology]] |date=April 2016 |volume=30 |pages=159–165 |doi=10.1016/j.pbi.2016.03.015 |pmid=27064530 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016COPB...30..159S |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Takhtajan |first1=A. |author-link=Takhtajan |title=The Taxa of the Higher Plants above the Rank of Order |journal=[[Taxon (journal)|Taxon]] |date=June 1964 |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=160–164 |doi=10.2307/1216134 |jstor=1216134}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Takhtajan |first1=A. |author-link=Takhtajan |title=Outline of the Classification of Flowering Plants (Magnoliophyta) |journal=Botanical Review |date=July–September 1980 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=225–359 |jstor=4353970 |doi=10.1007/bf02861558 |bibcode=1980BotRv..46..225T |s2cid=30764910}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=Liping |last2=Zhang |first2=Qiang |last3=Sun |first3=Renran |last4=Kong |first4=Hongzhi |last5=Zhang |first5=Ning |last6=Ma |first6=Hong |title=Resolution of deep angiosperm phylogeny using conserved nuclear genes and estimates of early divergence times |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |date=24 September 2014 |volume=5 |issue=4956 |pages=4956 |doi=10.1038/ncomms5956 |pmid=25249442 |pmc=4200517 |bibcode=2014NatCo...5.4956Z |ref=none}}
{{Refend}}
===Websites===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite web |last1=Cole |first1=Theodor C.H. |last2=Hilger |first2=Harmut H. |first3=Peter F. |last3=Stevens |date=2017 |url=http://www.biologie.fu-berlin.de/sysbot/poster/poster1.pdf |title=Angiosperm Phylogeny Poster{{spaced ndash}} Flowering Plant Systematics |ref=none}}
* {{cite web |last1=Watson |first1=L. |last2=Dallwitz |first2=M.J. |date=1992 |url=http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/delta/angio |title=The Families of Flowering Plants: Descriptions, Illustrations, Identification, and Information Retrieval |version=14 December 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140802080838/http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/delta/angio |archive-date=2014-08-02 |ref=none}}
* {{EOL|282}}
{{Refend}}
{{Plant classification}}
{{Botany}}
{{Angiosperm orders}}
{{Lists of angiosperm families}}
{{Life on Earth}}
{{Subject bar|Plants|c=Angiosperms|commonscat=y|species=Magnoliophyta|b=Magnoliophyta|auto=1}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q25314}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Flowering Plant}}
[[Category:Angiosperms|Angiosperms]]
[[Category:Plant sexuality]]
[[Category:Plants]]
[[Category:Pollination]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit ($1) (edit_diff) | '@@ -45,5 +45,5 @@
}}
-'''Flowering plants''' are [[plant]]s that bear [[flowers]] and [[fruit]]s, and form the clade '''Angiospermae''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|n|dʒ|i|ə|ˈ|s|p|ər|m|i:}}),<ref>{{cite book |last=Lindley |first=J. |year=1830 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/31944#page/21/mode/1up |title=Introduction to the Natural System of Botany |location=London |publisher=Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green |pages=xxxvi |no-pp=true |access-date=29 January 2018 |archive-date=27 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827171755/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/31944#page/21/mode/1up |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cantino |first1=Philip D. |last2=Doyle |first2=James A. |last3=Graham |first3=Sean W. |last4=Judd |first4=Walter S. |last5=Olmstead |first5=Richard G. |last6=Soltis |first6=Douglas E. |author-link6=Douglas E. Soltis |last7=Soltis |first7=Pamela S. |author-link7=Pamela S. Soltis |last8=Donoghue |first8=Michael J. |display-authors=3 |year=2007 |title= Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of ''Tracheophyta'' |journal=Taxon |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=E1–E44 |doi=10.2307/25065865|jstor=25065865 }}</ref> commonly called '''angiosperms'''. They include all [[forb]]s (flowering plants without a woody stem), [[grass]]es and grass-like plants, a vast majority of [[broad-leaved tree]]s, [[shrub]]s and [[vine]]s, and most [[aquatic plant]]s. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ἀγγεῖον / {{lang|grc-Latn|angeion}} ('container, vessel') and σπέρμα / {{lang|grc-Latn|sperma}} ('seed'), meaning that the [[seeds]] are enclosed within a fruit. They are by far the most diverse group of [[Embryophyte|land plants]] with 64 [[Order (biology)|orders]], 416 [[Family (biology)|families]], approximately 13,000 known [[Genus|genera]] and 300,000 known [[species]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Christenhusz |first1=M. J. M. |last2=Byng |first2=J. W. |year=2016 |title=The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase |journal=Phytotaxa |volume=261 |pages=201–217 |url=https://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598 |doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1 |issue=3 |doi-access=free |access-date=21 February 2022 |archive-date=6 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406045346/http://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598 |url-status=live }}</ref> Angiosperms were formerly called '''Magnoliophyta''' ({{IPAc-en|m|æ|g|ˌ|n|oʊ|l|i|ˈ|ɒ|f|ə|t|ə|,_|-|ə|ˈ|f|aɪ|t|ə}}).{{sfn|Takhtajan|1980}}
+'''Flowering plants''' are [[Plant|plants]] that bear [[flowers]] and [[Fruit|fruits]] and form the clade '''Angiospermae''' ([[Help:IPA/English|/ˌændʒiəˈspərmiː/]]),<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> commonly called '''angiosperms'''. They include all [[Forb|forbs]] (flowering plants without a woody stem), [[Grass|grasses]] and grass-like plants, a vast majority of [[Broad-leaved tree|broad-leaved trees]], [[Shrub|shrubs]] and [[Vine|vines]], and most [[Aquatic plant|aquatic plants]]. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ἀγγεῖον / ''angeion'' ('container, vessel') and σπέρμα / ''Sperma'' ('seed'), meaning that the [[seeds]] are enclosed within a fruit. They are the most diverse [[Embryophyte|land plants]] with 64 [[Order (biology)|orders]], 416 [[Family (biology)|families]], approximately 13,000 known [[Genus|genera]], and 300,000 known [[species]].[3] Angiosperms were formerly called '''Magnoliophyta''' ([[Help:IPA/English|/mæɡˌnoʊliˈɒfətə, -əˈfaɪtə/]]).
Angiosperms are distinguished from the other [[Spermatophyte|seed-producing]] plants, the [[gymnosperm]]s, by having [[flower]]s, [[xylem]] consisting of [[vessel element]]s instead of [[tracheids]], [[endosperm]] within their seeds, and fruits that completely envelop the seeds.
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@
! Feature !! Description !! Image
|-
-|[[Flower]]s ||The [[reproductive organ]]s of flowering plants, not found in any other [[seed plants]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Angiosperms {{!}} OpenStax Biology 2e |url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/angiosperms/ |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=courses.lumenlearning.com |archive-date=19 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719225359/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/angiosperms/ |url-status=live}}</ref> || [[File:Daffodil flower in section, labelled.svg|thumb|none|A ''[[Narcissus (plant)|Narcissus]]'' flower in section. [[Petal]]s and [[sepal]]s are replaced here by a fused tube, the corona, and tepals.]]
+|[[Flower]]s ||The [[reproductive organ]]s of flowering plants, not found in any other [[seed plants]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=Angiosperms {{!}} OpenStax Biology 2e |url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/angiosperms/ |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=courses.lumenlearning.com |archive-date=19 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719225359/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/angiosperms/ |url-status=live}}</ref>|| [[File:Daffodil flower in section, labelled.svg|thumb|none|A ''[[Narcissus (plant)|Narcissus]]'' flower in section. [[Petal]]s and [[sepal]]s are replaced here by a fused tube, the corona, and tepals.]]
|-
-|Reduced [[Gametophyte#Seed plants|gametophytes]], three [[cell (biology)|cells]] in male, seven cells with eight nuclei in female (except for basal angiosperms)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=William E. |last2=Ryerson |first2=Kirsten C. |title=Reconstructing the ancestral female gametophyte of angiosperms: Insights from Amborella and other ancient lineages of flowering plants |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=96 |issue=1 |date=2009 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800311 |pages=129–143|pmid=21628180 }}</ref> ||The gametophytes are smaller than those of gymnosperms.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Raven, Peter H. |author2=Evert, Ray F. |author3=Eichhorn, Susan E. |title=Biology of Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0 |url-access=registration |year=2005 |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=978-0-7167-1007-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0/page/376 376]–}}</ref> The smaller size of the [[pollen]] reduces the time between pollination and [[fertilization]], which in gymnosperms is up to a year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Williams |first=Joseph H. |title=The evolution of pollen germination timing in flowering plants: Austrobaileya scandens (Austrobaileyaceae) |journal=AoB Plants |volume=2012 |pages=pls010 |date=2012 |pmid=22567221 |pmc=3345124 |doi=10.1093/aobpla/pls010 }}</ref>
+|Reduced [[Gametophyte#Seed plants|gametophytes]], three [[cell (biology)|cells]] in male, seven cells with eight nuclei in female (except for basal angiosperms)<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=William E. |last2=Ryerson |first2=Kirsten C. |title=Reconstructing the ancestral female gametophyte of angiosperms: Insights from Amborella and other ancient lineages of flowering plants |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=96 |issue=1 |date=2009 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800311 |pages=129–143|pmid=21628180 }}</ref>||The gametophytes are smaller than those of gymnosperms.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Raven, Peter H. |author2=Evert, Ray F. |author3=Eichhorn, Susan E. |title=Biology of Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0 |url-access=registration |year=2005 |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=978-0-7167-1007-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0/page/376 376]–}}</ref> The smaller size of the [[pollen]] reduces the time between pollination and [[fertilization]], which in gymnosperms is up to a year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Williams |first=Joseph H. |title=The evolution of pollen germination timing in flowering plants: Austrobaileya scandens (Austrobaileyaceae) |journal=AoB Plants |volume=2012 |pages=pls010 |date=2012 |pmid=22567221 |pmc=3345124 |doi=10.1093/aobpla/pls010 }}</ref>
|rowspan=2 | [[File:Angiosperm embryo sac with female gametophyte.JPG|thumb|none|[[Embryo sac]] is a reduced female [[gametophyte]].]]
|-
@@ -523,7 +523,7 @@
===Adaptive function of flowers===
-Charles Darwin in his 1878 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom<ref>Darwin, C. R. 1878. The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. London: John Murray". darwin-online.org.uk</ref> in the initial paragraph of chapter XII noted "The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented." [[Flower]]s emerged in plant evolution as an adaptation for the promotion of cross-[[fertilisation]] ([[outcrossing]]), a process that allows the masking of deleterious [[mutation]]s in the [[genome]] of progeny. The masking effect is known as [[complementation (genetics)|genetic complementation]].<ref name = Bernstein1985>Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep 20;229(4719):1277-81. doi: 10.1126/science.3898363. PMID 3898363</ref> This beneficial effect of cross-fertilisation on progeny is also referred to as [[hybrid vigour|hybrid vigor]] or [[heterosis]]. Once flowers became established in a lineage as an evolutionary adaptation to promote cross-fertilization, subsequent switching to inbreeding usually becomes disadvantageous, in large part because it allows expression of the previously masked deleterious recessive mutations, i.e. [[inbreeding depression]].
+Charles Darwin in his 1878 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom<ref>Darwin, C. R. 1878. The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. London: John Murray". darwin-online.org.uk</ref> in the initial paragraph of chapter XII noted "The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented." [[Flower]]s emerged in plant evolution as an adaptation for the promotion of cross-[[fertilisation]] ([[outcrossing]]), a process that allows the masking of deleterious [[mutation]]s in the [[genome]] of progeny. The masking effect is known as [[complementation (genetics)|genetic complementation]].<ref name="Bernstein1985">Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep 20;229(4719):1277-81. doi: 10.1126/science.3898363. PMID 3898363</ref> This beneficial effect of cross-fertilisation on progeny is also referred to as [[hybrid vigour|hybrid vigor]] or [[heterosis]]. Once flowers became established in a lineage as an evolutionary adaptation to promote cross-fertilization, subsequent switching to inbreeding usually becomes disadvantageous, in large part because it allows expression of the previously masked deleterious recessive mutations, i.e. [[inbreeding depression]].
-Also, [[Meiosis]] in flowering plants provides a direct mechanism for [[DNA repair|repairing DNA]] through genetic recombination in reproductive tissues.<ref name = Horandl2024>Hörandl E. Apomixis and the paradox of sex in plants. Ann Bot. 2024 Mar 18:mcae044. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcae044. Epub ahead of print. PMID 38497809</ref> [[Sexual reproduction]] appears to be required for maintaining long-term [[genome|genomic]] integrity and only infrequent combinations of extrinsic and intrinsic factors permit shifts to asexuality.<ref name = Horandl2024/> Thus the two fundamental aspects of sexual reproduction in flowering plants, cross-fertilization (outcrossing) and meiosis appear to be maintained respectively by the advantages of genetic complementation and recombinational repair.<ref name = Bernstein1985/>
+Also, [[Meiosis]] in flowering plants provides a direct mechanism for [[DNA repair|repairing DNA]] through genetic recombination in reproductive tissues.<ref name="Horandl2024">Hörandl E. Apomixis and the paradox of sex in plants. Ann Bot. 2024 Mar 18:mcae044. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcae044. Epub ahead of print. PMID 38497809</ref> [[Sexual reproduction]] appears to be required for maintaining long-term [[genome|genomic]] integrity and only infrequent combinations of extrinsic and intrinsic factors permit shifts to asexuality.<ref name = Horandl2024/> Thus the two fundamental aspects of sexual reproduction in flowering plants, cross-fertilization (outcrossing) and meiosis appear to be maintained respectively by the advantages of genetic complementation and recombinational repair.<ref name = Bernstein1985/>
== Interactions with humans ==
' |
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0 => ''''Flowering plants''' are [[Plant|plants]] that bear [[flowers]] and [[Fruit|fruits]] and form the clade '''Angiospermae''' ([[Help:IPA/English|/ˌændʒiəˈspərmiː/]]),<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> commonly called '''angiosperms'''. They include all [[Forb|forbs]] (flowering plants without a woody stem), [[Grass|grasses]] and grass-like plants, a vast majority of [[Broad-leaved tree|broad-leaved trees]], [[Shrub|shrubs]] and [[Vine|vines]], and most [[Aquatic plant|aquatic plants]]. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ἀγγεῖον / ''angeion'' ('container, vessel') and σπέρμα / ''Sperma'' ('seed'), meaning that the [[seeds]] are enclosed within a fruit. They are the most diverse [[Embryophyte|land plants]] with 64 [[Order (biology)|orders]], 416 [[Family (biology)|families]], approximately 13,000 known [[Genus|genera]], and 300,000 known [[species]].[3] Angiosperms were formerly called '''Magnoliophyta''' ([[Help:IPA/English|/mæɡˌnoʊliˈɒfətə, -əˈfaɪtə/]]).',
1 => '|[[Flower]]s ||The [[reproductive organ]]s of flowering plants, not found in any other [[seed plants]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=Angiosperms {{!}} OpenStax Biology 2e |url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/angiosperms/ |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=courses.lumenlearning.com |archive-date=19 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719225359/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/angiosperms/ |url-status=live}}</ref>|| [[File:Daffodil flower in section, labelled.svg|thumb|none|A ''[[Narcissus (plant)|Narcissus]]'' flower in section. [[Petal]]s and [[sepal]]s are replaced here by a fused tube, the corona, and tepals.]]',
2 => '|Reduced [[Gametophyte#Seed plants|gametophytes]], three [[cell (biology)|cells]] in male, seven cells with eight nuclei in female (except for basal angiosperms)<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=William E. |last2=Ryerson |first2=Kirsten C. |title=Reconstructing the ancestral female gametophyte of angiosperms: Insights from Amborella and other ancient lineages of flowering plants |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=96 |issue=1 |date=2009 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800311 |pages=129–143|pmid=21628180 }}</ref>||The gametophytes are smaller than those of gymnosperms.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Raven, Peter H. |author2=Evert, Ray F. |author3=Eichhorn, Susan E. |title=Biology of Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0 |url-access=registration |year=2005 |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=978-0-7167-1007-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0/page/376 376]–}}</ref> The smaller size of the [[pollen]] reduces the time between pollination and [[fertilization]], which in gymnosperms is up to a year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Williams |first=Joseph H. |title=The evolution of pollen germination timing in flowering plants: Austrobaileya scandens (Austrobaileyaceae) |journal=AoB Plants |volume=2012 |pages=pls010 |date=2012 |pmid=22567221 |pmc=3345124 |doi=10.1093/aobpla/pls010 }}</ref> ',
3 => 'Charles Darwin in his 1878 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom<ref>Darwin, C. R. 1878. The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. London: John Murray". darwin-online.org.uk</ref> in the initial paragraph of chapter XII noted "The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented." [[Flower]]s emerged in plant evolution as an adaptation for the promotion of cross-[[fertilisation]] ([[outcrossing]]), a process that allows the masking of deleterious [[mutation]]s in the [[genome]] of progeny. The masking effect is known as [[complementation (genetics)|genetic complementation]].<ref name="Bernstein1985">Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep 20;229(4719):1277-81. doi: 10.1126/science.3898363. PMID 3898363</ref> This beneficial effect of cross-fertilisation on progeny is also referred to as [[hybrid vigour|hybrid vigor]] or [[heterosis]]. Once flowers became established in a lineage as an evolutionary adaptation to promote cross-fertilization, subsequent switching to inbreeding usually becomes disadvantageous, in large part because it allows expression of the previously masked deleterious recessive mutations, i.e. [[inbreeding depression]].',
4 => 'Also, [[Meiosis]] in flowering plants provides a direct mechanism for [[DNA repair|repairing DNA]] through genetic recombination in reproductive tissues.<ref name="Horandl2024">Hörandl E. Apomixis and the paradox of sex in plants. Ann Bot. 2024 Mar 18:mcae044. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcae044. Epub ahead of print. PMID 38497809</ref> [[Sexual reproduction]] appears to be required for maintaining long-term [[genome|genomic]] integrity and only infrequent combinations of extrinsic and intrinsic factors permit shifts to asexuality.<ref name = Horandl2024/> Thus the two fundamental aspects of sexual reproduction in flowering plants, cross-fertilization (outcrossing) and meiosis appear to be maintained respectively by the advantages of genetic complementation and recombinational repair.<ref name = Bernstein1985/>'
] |
Lines removed in edit ($1) (removed_lines) | [
0 => ''''Flowering plants''' are [[plant]]s that bear [[flowers]] and [[fruit]]s, and form the clade '''Angiospermae''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|n|dʒ|i|ə|ˈ|s|p|ər|m|i:}}),<ref>{{cite book |last=Lindley |first=J. |year=1830 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/31944#page/21/mode/1up |title=Introduction to the Natural System of Botany |location=London |publisher=Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green |pages=xxxvi |no-pp=true |access-date=29 January 2018 |archive-date=27 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827171755/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/31944#page/21/mode/1up |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cantino |first1=Philip D. |last2=Doyle |first2=James A. |last3=Graham |first3=Sean W. |last4=Judd |first4=Walter S. |last5=Olmstead |first5=Richard G. |last6=Soltis |first6=Douglas E. |author-link6=Douglas E. Soltis |last7=Soltis |first7=Pamela S. |author-link7=Pamela S. Soltis |last8=Donoghue |first8=Michael J. |display-authors=3 |year=2007 |title= Towards a phylogenetic nomenclature of ''Tracheophyta'' |journal=Taxon |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=E1–E44 |doi=10.2307/25065865|jstor=25065865 }}</ref> commonly called '''angiosperms'''. They include all [[forb]]s (flowering plants without a woody stem), [[grass]]es and grass-like plants, a vast majority of [[broad-leaved tree]]s, [[shrub]]s and [[vine]]s, and most [[aquatic plant]]s. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ἀγγεῖον / {{lang|grc-Latn|angeion}} ('container, vessel') and σπέρμα / {{lang|grc-Latn|sperma}} ('seed'), meaning that the [[seeds]] are enclosed within a fruit. They are by far the most diverse group of [[Embryophyte|land plants]] with 64 [[Order (biology)|orders]], 416 [[Family (biology)|families]], approximately 13,000 known [[Genus|genera]] and 300,000 known [[species]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Christenhusz |first1=M. J. M. |last2=Byng |first2=J. W. |year=2016 |title=The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase |journal=Phytotaxa |volume=261 |pages=201–217 |url=https://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598 |doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1 |issue=3 |doi-access=free |access-date=21 February 2022 |archive-date=6 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406045346/http://biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.261.3.1/20598 |url-status=live }}</ref> Angiosperms were formerly called '''Magnoliophyta''' ({{IPAc-en|m|æ|g|ˌ|n|oʊ|l|i|ˈ|ɒ|f|ə|t|ə|,_|-|ə|ˈ|f|aɪ|t|ə}}).{{sfn|Takhtajan|1980}}',
1 => '|[[Flower]]s ||The [[reproductive organ]]s of flowering plants, not found in any other [[seed plants]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Angiosperms {{!}} OpenStax Biology 2e |url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/angiosperms/ |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=courses.lumenlearning.com |archive-date=19 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719225359/https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-osbiology2e/chapter/angiosperms/ |url-status=live}}</ref> || [[File:Daffodil flower in section, labelled.svg|thumb|none|A ''[[Narcissus (plant)|Narcissus]]'' flower in section. [[Petal]]s and [[sepal]]s are replaced here by a fused tube, the corona, and tepals.]]',
2 => '|Reduced [[Gametophyte#Seed plants|gametophytes]], three [[cell (biology)|cells]] in male, seven cells with eight nuclei in female (except for basal angiosperms)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=William E. |last2=Ryerson |first2=Kirsten C. |title=Reconstructing the ancestral female gametophyte of angiosperms: Insights from Amborella and other ancient lineages of flowering plants |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=96 |issue=1 |date=2009 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800311 |pages=129–143|pmid=21628180 }}</ref> ||The gametophytes are smaller than those of gymnosperms.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Raven, Peter H. |author2=Evert, Ray F. |author3=Eichhorn, Susan E. |title=Biology of Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0 |url-access=registration |year=2005 |publisher=W. H. Freeman |isbn=978-0-7167-1007-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biologyofplants00rave_0/page/376 376]–}}</ref> The smaller size of the [[pollen]] reduces the time between pollination and [[fertilization]], which in gymnosperms is up to a year.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Williams |first=Joseph H. |title=The evolution of pollen germination timing in flowering plants: Austrobaileya scandens (Austrobaileyaceae) |journal=AoB Plants |volume=2012 |pages=pls010 |date=2012 |pmid=22567221 |pmc=3345124 |doi=10.1093/aobpla/pls010 }}</ref> ',
3 => 'Charles Darwin in his 1878 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom<ref>Darwin, C. R. 1878. The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. London: John Murray". darwin-online.org.uk</ref> in the initial paragraph of chapter XII noted "The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented." [[Flower]]s emerged in plant evolution as an adaptation for the promotion of cross-[[fertilisation]] ([[outcrossing]]), a process that allows the masking of deleterious [[mutation]]s in the [[genome]] of progeny. The masking effect is known as [[complementation (genetics)|genetic complementation]].<ref name = Bernstein1985>Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep 20;229(4719):1277-81. doi: 10.1126/science.3898363. PMID 3898363</ref> This beneficial effect of cross-fertilisation on progeny is also referred to as [[hybrid vigour|hybrid vigor]] or [[heterosis]]. Once flowers became established in a lineage as an evolutionary adaptation to promote cross-fertilization, subsequent switching to inbreeding usually becomes disadvantageous, in large part because it allows expression of the previously masked deleterious recessive mutations, i.e. [[inbreeding depression]].',
4 => 'Also, [[Meiosis]] in flowering plants provides a direct mechanism for [[DNA repair|repairing DNA]] through genetic recombination in reproductive tissues.<ref name = Horandl2024>Hörandl E. Apomixis and the paradox of sex in plants. Ann Bot. 2024 Mar 18:mcae044. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcae044. Epub ahead of print. PMID 38497809</ref> [[Sexual reproduction]] appears to be required for maintaining long-term [[genome|genomic]] integrity and only infrequent combinations of extrinsic and intrinsic factors permit shifts to asexuality.<ref name = Horandl2024/> Thus the two fundamental aspects of sexual reproduction in flowering plants, cross-fertilization (outcrossing) and meiosis appear to be maintained respectively by the advantages of genetic complementation and recombinational repair.<ref name = Bernstein1985/>'
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170 => 'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC139410',
171 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12225592',
172 => 'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8672599',
173 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34911578',
174 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20153240',
175 => 'https://doi.org/10.1086%2F283209',
176 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85343835',
177 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15760351',
178 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021NatCo..12.6930G',
179 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17337752',
180 => 'https://www.cbd.int/gspc/',
181 => 'https://www.botanic.cam.ac.uk/festival-of-plants-2020/fop-day3-conservation/plant-conservation-around-the-world/',
182 => 'https://www.bgci.org/about/botanic-gardens-and-plant-conservation/',
183 => 'https://museum.wales/cardiff/whatson/9245/Natures-Song-Traditional-Chinese-Bird-and-Flower-Paintings-/',
184 => 'http://www.localhistories.org/gardening.html',
185 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20140919185926/http://www.folger.edu/template.cfm?cid=3192',
186 => 'http://www.folger.edu/template.cfm?cid=3192',
187 => 'https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm/Significance-to-humans',
188 => 'https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9804264',
189 => 'https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fele.14087',
190 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36028464',
191 => 'https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fppp3.10146',
192 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225274409',
193 => 'https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter02.pdf',
194 => 'https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/',
195 => 'https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/jul/15/climate-change-food-famine-study',
196 => 'https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/73/12/3840/6570702',
197 => 'https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjxb%2Ferac130',
198 => 'https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/71/1/22/5571867',
199 => 'https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjxb%2Ferz411',
200 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31538196',
201 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35438718',
202 => 'https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283008038',
203 => 'https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781009325844.004',
204 => 'https://inaturalist.org/taxa/47125',
205 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20220804231344/https://museum.wales/cardiff/whatson/9245/Natures-Song-Traditional-Chinese-Bird-and-Flower-Paintings-/',
206 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015BMCEE..15...49M',
207 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014CRvPS..33..414H',
208 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022EcolL..25.2156B',
209 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1960BotRv..26..425C',
210 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980BotRv..46..225T',
211 => 'http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987012366955205171',
212 => 'https://hdl.handle.net/10316%2F101227',
213 => 'https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/283437',
214 => 'https://doi.org/10.3732%2Fajb.0800311',
215 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21628180',
216 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016COPB...30..159S',
217 => 'https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficb%2Ficj038',
218 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21672758',
219 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1540-7063',
220 => 'https://hdl.handle.net/10654%2F18083',
221 => 'https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-024-07324-0',
222 => 'https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07324-0',
223 => 'https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/11/science/a-new-tree-of-flowering-plants-for-spring-groundbreaking.html',
224 => 'https://archive.ph/ioYgR',
225 => 'https://archive.ph/wip/rQu6X',
226 => 'https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38658746',
227 => 'https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836'
] |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision ($1) (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Clade of seed plants that produce flowers</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Flowering Plants" redirects here. For the book by G. Ledyard Stebbins, see <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Flowering_Plants:_Evolution_Above_the_Species_Level" title="Flowering Plants: Evolution Above the Species Level">Flowering Plants: Evolution Above the Species Level</a>.</div>
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</p>
<table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%">
<tbody><tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(180,250,180)">Flowering plant<br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: <span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;">Early Cretaceous (<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Valanginian" title="Valanginian">Valanginian</a>)-Recent</span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;">
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:18.073846153846px;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.710769230769px; width:14.08px;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:69.790769230769px; width:8.3261538461539px;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:78.116923076923px; width:20.409230769231px;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.089230769231px;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.543692307692px;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20523076923px; width:6.9215384615385px;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div>
<div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:175.32307692308px; width:44.676923076923px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div>
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</div></span></div>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tnone center"><div class="multiimageinner" style="width:262px;max-width:262px;border:none"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:130px;max-width:130px"><div style="height:101px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Ranunculus_repens_1_(cropped).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Ranunculus_repens_1_%28cropped%29.JPG/128px-Ranunculus_repens_1_%28cropped%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="128" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Ranunculus_repens_1_%28cropped%29.JPG/192px-Ranunculus_repens_1_%28cropped%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Ranunculus_repens_1_%28cropped%29.JPG/256px-Ranunculus_repens_1_%28cropped%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3379" data-file-height="2681" /></a></span></div><div>Terrestrial: <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ranunculaceae" title="Ranunculaceae">buttercup</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:128px;max-width:128px"><div style="height:101px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Nymphaea_alba_flower-and-leaves-DSC_3326w.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nymphaea_alba_flower-and-leaves-DSC_3326w.jpg/126px-Nymphaea_alba_flower-and-leaves-DSC_3326w.jpg" decoding="async" width="126" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nymphaea_alba_flower-and-leaves-DSC_3326w.jpg/189px-Nymphaea_alba_flower-and-leaves-DSC_3326w.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nymphaea_alba_flower-and-leaves-DSC_3326w.jpg/252px-Nymphaea_alba_flower-and-leaves-DSC_3326w.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2977" data-file-height="2393" /></a></span></div><div>Aquatic: <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nymphaeaceae" title="Nymphaeaceae">water lily</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:129px;max-width:129px"><div style="height:169px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Meadow_Foxtail_head.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Meadow_Foxtail_head.jpg/127px-Meadow_Foxtail_head.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Meadow_Foxtail_head.jpg/191px-Meadow_Foxtail_head.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Meadow_Foxtail_head.jpg/254px-Meadow_Foxtail_head.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div><div>Wind-pollinated: <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Poaceae" title="Poaceae">grass</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:129px;max-width:129px"><div style="height:169px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Apple_blossom._Eastern_Siberia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Apple_blossom._Eastern_Siberia.jpg/127px-Apple_blossom._Eastern_Siberia.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Apple_blossom._Eastern_Siberia.jpg/191px-Apple_blossom._Eastern_Siberia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Apple_blossom._Eastern_Siberia.jpg/254px-Apple_blossom._Eastern_Siberia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div><div>Insect-pollinated: <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rosaceae" title="Rosaceae">apple</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:129px;max-width:129px"><div style="height:169px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Quercus_robur_4_RF_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Quercus_robur_4_RF_%28cropped%29.jpg/127px-Quercus_robur_4_RF_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Quercus_robur_4_RF_%28cropped%29.jpg/191px-Quercus_robur_4_RF_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Quercus_robur_4_RF_%28cropped%29.jpg/254px-Quercus_robur_4_RF_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="668" data-file-height="891" /></a></span></div><div>Tree: <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Quercus" class="mw-redirect" title="Quercus">oak</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:129px;max-width:129px"><div style="height:169px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Orchis_simia_Saarland_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Orchis_simia_Saarland_01.jpg/127px-Orchis_simia_Saarland_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Orchis_simia_Saarland_01.jpg/191px-Orchis_simia_Saarland_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Orchis_simia_Saarland_01.jpg/254px-Orchis_simia_Saarland_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div><div>Forb: <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Orchid" title="Orchid">orchid</a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div>Diversity of angiosperms</div></div></div></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Taxonomy/Angiosperms" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>Kingdom:
</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant" title="Plant">Plantae</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>Clade</i>:
</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Tracheophytes</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>Clade</i>:
</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Seed_plant" title="Seed plant">Spermatophytes</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><i>Clade</i>:
</td>
<td><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Angiosperms</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(180,250,180)">Groups (APG IV)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2016_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2016-1">[1]</a></sup>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: left">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Basal_angiosperms" title="Basal angiosperms">Basal angiosperms</a>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Amborellales" class="mw-redirect" title="Amborellales">Amborellales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nymphaeales" title="Nymphaeales">Nymphaeales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Austrobaileyales" title="Austrobaileyales">Austrobaileyales</a></li></ul>
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Core_angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Core angiosperms">Core angiosperms</a>
</p>
<ul><li>Clades
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Magnoliids" title="Magnoliids">Magnoliids</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Monocots" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocots">Monocots</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Eudicots" title="Eudicots">Eudicots</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Orders
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chloranthales" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloranthales">Chloranthales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ceratophyllales" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceratophyllales">Ceratophyllales</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background-color: rgb(180,250,180)"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">Synonyms</a>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: left">
<ul><li>Anthophyta <small>Cronquist</small><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECronquist1960_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECronquist1960-2">[2]</a></sup></li>
<li>Angiospermae <small><a href="./wiki.php?slug=John_Lindley" title="John Lindley">Lindl.</a></small></li>
<li>Magnoliophyta <small><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Arthur_J._Cronquist" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur J. Cronquist">Cronquist</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Takht." class="mw-redirect" title="Takht.">Takht.</a> & <a href="./wiki.php?slug=W.Zimm." class="mw-redirect" title="W.Zimm.">W.Zimm.</a></small><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup></li>
<li>Magnolicae <small>Takht.</small><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETakhtajan1964_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETakhtajan1964-4">[4]</a></sup></li></ul>
</td></tr>
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<p><b>Flowering plants</b> are <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> that bear <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Flowers" class="mw-redirect" title="Flowers">flowers</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a> and form the clade <b>Angiospermae</b> (<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˌændʒiəˈspərmiː/</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6">[6]</a></sup> commonly called <b>angiosperms</b>. They include all <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Forb" title="Forb">forbs</a> (flowering plants without a woody stem), <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Grass">grasses</a> and grass-like plants, a vast majority of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Broad-leaved_tree" title="Broad-leaved tree">broad-leaved trees</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Shrub" title="Shrub">shrubs</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Vine" title="Vine">vines</a>, and most <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Aquatic_plant" title="Aquatic plant">aquatic plants</a>. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> words ἀγγεῖον / <i>angeion</i> ('container, vessel') and σπέρμα / <i>Sperma</i> ('seed'), meaning that the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Seeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Seeds">seeds</a> are enclosed within a fruit. They are the most diverse <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">land plants</a> with 64 <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">orders</a>, 416 <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">families</a>, approximately 13,000 known <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Genus" title="Genus">genera</a>, and 300,000 known <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Species" title="Species">species</a>.[3] Angiosperms were formerly called <b>Magnoliophyta</b> (<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/mæɡˌnoʊliˈɒfətə, -əˈfaɪtə/</a>).
</p><p>Angiosperms are distinguished from the other <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">seed-producing</a> plants, the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a>, by having <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Flower" title="Flower">flowers</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a> consisting of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Vessel_element" title="Vessel element">vessel elements</a> instead of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Tracheids" class="mw-redirect" title="Tracheids">tracheids</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Endosperm" title="Endosperm">endosperm</a> within their seeds, and fruits that completely envelop the seeds.
The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from the common ancestor of all living gymnosperms before the end of the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a>, over 300 million years ago. In the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>, angiosperms <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">diversified explosively</a>, becoming the dominant group of plants across the planet.
</p><p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, and a small number of flowering plant families supply nearly all plant-based <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Food" title="Food">food</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> feed. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rice" title="Rice">Rice</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a> provide half of the world's <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Calorie" title="Calorie">calorie</a> intake, and all three plants are cereals from the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Poaceae" title="Poaceae">Poaceae</a> family (colloquially known as grasses). Other families provide materials such as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Paper" title="Paper">paper</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>, and supply numerous ingredients for traditional and modern medicines. Flowering plants are also commonly grown for decorative purposes, with certain flowers playing a significant role in many cultures.
</p><p>Out of the "Big Five" <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">extinction events</a> in Earth's history, only the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> had occurred while angiosperms dominated plant life on the planet. Today, the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a> affects all <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Kingdoms_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdoms of life">kingdoms of complex life</a> on Earth, and conservation measures are necessary to protect plants in their habitats in the wild (<i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a></i>), or failing that, <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ex_situ_conservation" title="Ex situ conservation">ex situ</a></i> in <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">seed banks</a> or artificial habitats like <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Botanic_garden" class="mw-redirect" title="Botanic garden">botanic gardens</a>. Otherwise, around 40% of plant species may become <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</a> due to human actions such as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a>, introduction of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>, unsustainable <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Logging" title="Logging">logging</a> and collection of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Medicinal_plants" title="Medicinal plants">medicinal</a> or <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ornamental_plant" title="Ornamental plant">ornamental plants</a>. Further, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> is <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">starting to impact plants</a> and is likely to cause many species to become extinct by 2100.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Distinguishing_features"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Distinguishing features</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Diversity"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Diversity</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Ecological_diversity"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ecological diversity</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Taxonomic_diversity"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Taxonomic diversity</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Evolution"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Evolution</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#History_of_classification"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">History of classification</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Phylogeny"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Phylogeny</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#External"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">External</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Internal"><span class="tocnumber">3.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Internal</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Fossil_history"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Fossil history</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Reproduction"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Reproduction</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Flowers"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Flowers</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Fertilisation_and_embryogenesis"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Fertilisation and embryogenesis</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Fruit_and_seed"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Fruit and seed</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Sexual_selection"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Sexual selection</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Adaptive_function_of_flowers"><span class="tocnumber">4.5</span> <span class="toctext">Adaptive function of flowers</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Interactions_with_humans"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Interactions with humans</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Practical_uses"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Practical uses</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Cultural_uses"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Cultural uses</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Conservation"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Conservation</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Articles,_books_and_chapters"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Articles, books and chapters</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Websites"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Websites</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Distinguishing_features">Distinguishing features</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Distinguishing features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Angiosperms are terrestrial vascular plants; like the gymnosperms, they have <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Root" title="Root">roots</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">stems</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Leaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaves">leaves</a>, and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Seed" title="Seed">seeds</a>. They differ from other <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">seed plants</a> in several ways.
</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Feature</th>
<th>Description</th>
<th>Image
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Flower" title="Flower">Flowers</a></td>
<td>The <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Reproductive_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive organ">reproductive organs</a> of flowering plants, not found in any other <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Seed_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Seed plants">seed plants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5">[5]</a></sup></td>
<td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Daffodil_flower_in_section,_labelled.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Daffodil_flower_in_section%2C_labelled.svg/220px-Daffodil_flower_in_section%2C_labelled.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Daffodil_flower_in_section%2C_labelled.svg/330px-Daffodil_flower_in_section%2C_labelled.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Daffodil_flower_in_section%2C_labelled.svg/440px-Daffodil_flower_in_section%2C_labelled.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="548" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>A <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Narcissus_(plant)" title="Narcissus (plant)">Narcissus</a></i> flower in section. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Petal" title="Petal">Petals</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sepal" title="Sepal">sepals</a> are replaced here by a fused tube, the corona, and tepals.</figcaption></figure>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Reduced <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gametophyte#Seed_plants" title="Gametophyte">gametophytes</a>, three <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> in male, seven cells with eight nuclei in female (except for basal angiosperms)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6">[6]</a></sup></td>
<td>The gametophytes are smaller than those of gymnosperms.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> The smaller size of the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> reduces the time between pollination and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilization</a>, which in gymnosperms is up to a year.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup>
</td>
<td rowspan="2"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Angiosperm_embryo_sac_with_female_gametophyte.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Angiosperm_embryo_sac_with_female_gametophyte.JPG/220px-Angiosperm_embryo_sac_with_female_gametophyte.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Angiosperm_embryo_sac_with_female_gametophyte.JPG/330px-Angiosperm_embryo_sac_with_female_gametophyte.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Angiosperm_embryo_sac_with_female_gametophyte.JPG/440px-Angiosperm_embryo_sac_with_female_gametophyte.JPG 2x" data-file-width="863" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Embryo_sac" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryo sac">Embryo sac</a> is a reduced female <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a>.</figcaption></figure>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></td>
<td>Endosperm forms after fertilization but before the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a> divides. It provides food for the developing <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a>, the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cotyledon" title="Cotyledon">cotyledons</a>, and sometimes the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Seedling" title="Seedling">seedling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Closed <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">carpel</a> enclosing the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ovule" title="Ovule">ovules</a>.</td>
<td>Once the ovules are fertilised, the carpels, often with surrounding tissues, develop into fruits. Gymnosperms have unenclosed seeds.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup></td>
<td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Alternating_peas_in_peapod_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Alternating_peas_in_peapod_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Alternating_peas_in_peapod_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Alternating_peas_in_peapod_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Alternating_peas_in_peapod_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Alternating_peas_in_peapod_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Alternating_peas_in_peapod_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3240" data-file-height="1923" /></a><figcaption>Peas (seeds, from ovules) inside pod (fruit, from fertilised carpel).</figcaption></figure>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a> made of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Vessel_element" title="Vessel element">vessel elements</a></td>
<td>Open vessel elements are stacked end to end to form continuous tubes, whereas gymnosperm xylem is made of tapered <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Tracheids" class="mw-redirect" title="Tracheids">tracheids</a> connected by small <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pit_(botany)" title="Pit (botany)">pits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup></td>
<td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Herbaceous_Dicot_Stem_Xylem_Vessels_Cucurbita_(35463815631).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Herbaceous_Dicot_Stem_Xylem_Vessels_Cucurbita_%2835463815631%29.jpg/220px-Herbaceous_Dicot_Stem_Xylem_Vessels_Cucurbita_%2835463815631%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Herbaceous_Dicot_Stem_Xylem_Vessels_Cucurbita_%2835463815631%29.jpg/330px-Herbaceous_Dicot_Stem_Xylem_Vessels_Cucurbita_%2835463815631%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Herbaceous_Dicot_Stem_Xylem_Vessels_Cucurbita_%2835463815631%29.jpg/440px-Herbaceous_Dicot_Stem_Xylem_Vessels_Cucurbita_%2835463815631%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1840" /></a><figcaption><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a> vessels (long tubes).</figcaption></figure>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Diversity">Diversity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Diversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ecological_diversity">Ecological diversity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Ecological diversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></div>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines center">
<li class="gallerycaption">Largest and smallest</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 225px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:MountainAshWithCars.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Eucalyptus regnans, a tree almost 100 m tall"><img alt="Eucalyptus regnans, a tree almost 100 m tall" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/MountainAshWithCars.jpg/169px-MountainAshWithCars.jpg" decoding="async" width="169" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/MountainAshWithCars.jpg/253px-MountainAshWithCars.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/MountainAshWithCars.jpg/337px-MountainAshWithCars.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Eucalyptus_regnans" title="Eucalyptus regnans">Eucalyptus regnans</a></i>,<br />a tree almost 100 m tall</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 225px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:WolffiaArrhiza2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wolffia arrhiza, a rootless floating freshwater plant under 2 mm across"><img alt="Wolffia arrhiza, a rootless floating freshwater plant under 2 mm across" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/WolffiaArrhiza2.jpg/225px-WolffiaArrhiza2.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/WolffiaArrhiza2.jpg/338px-WolffiaArrhiza2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/WolffiaArrhiza2.jpg/450px-WolffiaArrhiza2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Wolffia_arrhiza" title="Wolffia arrhiza">Wolffia arrhiza</a></i>, a rootless floating freshwater plant under 2 mm across</div>
</li>
</ul>
<p>The largest angiosperms are <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Eucalyptus" title="Eucalyptus">Eucalyptus</a></i> gum trees of Australia, and <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Shorea_faguetiana" title="Shorea faguetiana">Shorea faguetiana</a></i>, dipterocarp rainforest trees of Southeast Asia, both of which can reach almost 100 metres (330 ft) in height.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> The smallest are <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Wolffia" title="Wolffia">Wolffia</a></i> duckweeds which float on freshwater, each plant less than 2 millimetres (0.08 in) across.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines center">
<li class="gallerycaption">Photosynthetic and parasitic</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 225px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Sunlight_on_a_gunnera_leaf,_%27Quarry_Garden%27,_Belsay_estate_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1384733.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gunnera captures sunlight for photosynthesis over the large surfaces of its leaves, which are supported by strong veins."><img alt="Gunnera captures sunlight for photosynthesis over the large surfaces of its leaves, which are supported by strong veins." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Sunlight_on_a_gunnera_leaf%2C_%27Quarry_Garden%27%2C_Belsay_estate_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1384733.jpg/225px-Sunlight_on_a_gunnera_leaf%2C_%27Quarry_Garden%27%2C_Belsay_estate_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1384733.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Sunlight_on_a_gunnera_leaf%2C_%27Quarry_Garden%27%2C_Belsay_estate_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1384733.jpg/338px-Sunlight_on_a_gunnera_leaf%2C_%27Quarry_Garden%27%2C_Belsay_estate_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1384733.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Sunlight_on_a_gunnera_leaf%2C_%27Quarry_Garden%27%2C_Belsay_estate_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1384733.jpg/450px-Sunlight_on_a_gunnera_leaf%2C_%27Quarry_Garden%27%2C_Belsay_estate_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1384733.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="426" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gunnera" title="Gunnera">Gunnera</a></i> captures sunlight for <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> over the large surfaces of its leaves, which are supported by strong veins.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 225px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Orobanche_purpurea.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Orobanche purpurea, a parasitic broomrape with no leaves, obtains all its food from other plants."><img alt="Orobanche purpurea, a parasitic broomrape with no leaves, obtains all its food from other plants." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Orobanche_purpurea.jpg/150px-Orobanche_purpurea.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Orobanche_purpurea.jpg/225px-Orobanche_purpurea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Orobanche_purpurea.jpg/300px-Orobanche_purpurea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2278" data-file-height="3417" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Orobanche" title="Orobanche">Orobanche purpurea</a></i>, a <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasitic</a> broomrape with no leaves, obtains all its food from other plants.</div>
</li>
</ul>
<p>Considering their method of obtaining energy, some 99% of flowering plants are <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Photosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic">photosynthetic</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Autotroph" title="Autotroph">autotrophs</a>, deriving their energy from sunlight and using it to create molecules such as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sugar" title="Sugar">sugars</a>. The remainder are <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Parasitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic">parasitic</a>, whether <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">on fungi</a> like the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Orchids" class="mw-redirect" title="Orchids">orchids</a> for part or all of their life-cycle,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> or <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Parasitic_plant" title="Parasitic plant">on other plants</a>, either wholly like the broomrapes, <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Orobanche" title="Orobanche">Orobanche</a></i>, or partially like the witchweeds, <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Striga" title="Striga">Striga</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines center">
<li class="gallerycaption">Hot, cold, wet, dry, fresh, salt</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 225px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Carnegiea_gigantea_Saguaro_cactus_plant_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Carnegiea gigantea, the saguaro cactus, grows in hot dry deserts in Mexico and the southern United States."><img alt="Carnegiea gigantea, the saguaro cactus, grows in hot dry deserts in Mexico and the southern United States." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Carnegiea_gigantea_Saguaro_cactus_plant_%28cropped%29.jpg/225px-Carnegiea_gigantea_Saguaro_cactus_plant_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Carnegiea_gigantea_Saguaro_cactus_plant_%28cropped%29.jpg/338px-Carnegiea_gigantea_Saguaro_cactus_plant_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Carnegiea_gigantea_Saguaro_cactus_plant_%28cropped%29.jpg/450px-Carnegiea_gigantea_Saguaro_cactus_plant_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2677" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Carnegiea_gigantea" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnegiea gigantea">Carnegiea gigantea</a></i>, the saguaro cactus, grows in hot dry <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Desert" title="Desert">deserts</a> in Mexico and the southern United States.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 225px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Dryas_octopetala_(Colorado,_USA).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dryas octopetala, the mountain avens, lives in cold arctic and montane habitats in the far north of America and Eurasia."><img alt="Dryas octopetala, the mountain avens, lives in cold arctic and montane habitats in the far north of America and Eurasia." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Dryas_octopetala_%28Colorado%2C_USA%29.jpg/225px-Dryas_octopetala_%28Colorado%2C_USA%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Dryas_octopetala_%28Colorado%2C_USA%29.jpg/338px-Dryas_octopetala_%28Colorado%2C_USA%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Dryas_octopetala_%28Colorado%2C_USA%29.jpg/450px-Dryas_octopetala_%28Colorado%2C_USA%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Dryas_octopetala" title="Dryas octopetala">Dryas octopetala</a></i>, the mountain avens, lives in cold arctic and montane habitats in the far north of America and Eurasia.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 225px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Nelumbo_nucifera_Gaertn._(47502598342).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nelumbo nucifera, the sacred lotus, grows in warm freshwater across tropical and subtropical Asia."><img alt="Nelumbo nucifera, the sacred lotus, grows in warm freshwater across tropical and subtropical Asia." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Nelumbo_nucifera_Gaertn._%2847502598342%29.jpg/225px-Nelumbo_nucifera_Gaertn._%2847502598342%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Nelumbo_nucifera_Gaertn._%2847502598342%29.jpg/338px-Nelumbo_nucifera_Gaertn._%2847502598342%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Nelumbo_nucifera_Gaertn._%2847502598342%29.jpg/450px-Nelumbo_nucifera_Gaertn._%2847502598342%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nelumbo_nucifera" title="Nelumbo nucifera">Nelumbo nucifera</a></i>, the sacred lotus, grows in warm freshwater across tropical and subtropical Asia.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 225px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Zostera.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Zostera seagrass grows on the seabed in sheltered coastal waters."><img alt="Zostera seagrass grows on the seabed in sheltered coastal waters." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Zostera.jpg/225px-Zostera.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Zostera.jpg/338px-Zostera.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Zostera.jpg/450px-Zostera.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1943" data-file-height="1335" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Zostera" title="Zostera">Zostera</a></i> seagrass grows on the seabed in sheltered coastal waters.</div>
</li>
</ul>
<p>In terms of their environment, flowering plants are cosmopolitan, occupying a wide range of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Habitat" title="Habitat">habitats</a> on land, in fresh water and in the sea. On land, they are the dominant plant group in every habitat except for frigid moss-lichen <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Coniferous_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Coniferous forest">coniferous forest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup> The <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrasses</a> in the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Alismatales" title="Alismatales">Alismatales</a> grow in marine environments, spreading with <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rhizome" title="Rhizome">rhizomes</a> that grow through the mud in sheltered coastal waters.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines center">
<li class="gallerycaption">Acid, alkaline</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 225px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Drosera_anglica_ne2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Drosera anglica, a sundew, lives in nutrient-poor acid bogs, deriving nutrients from trapped insects.[18]"><img alt="Drosera anglica, a sundew, lives in nutrient-poor acid bogs, deriving nutrients from trapped insects.[18]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Drosera_anglica_ne2.jpg/225px-Drosera_anglica_ne2.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Drosera_anglica_ne2.jpg/338px-Drosera_anglica_ne2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Drosera_anglica_ne2.jpg/450px-Drosera_anglica_ne2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Drosera_anglica" title="Drosera anglica">Drosera anglica</a></i>, a sundew, lives in nutrient-poor acid <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bog" title="Bog">bogs</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Carnivorous_plant" title="Carnivorous plant">deriving nutrients from trapped insects</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Karlsson_1992_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karlsson_1992-18">[18]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 225px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Gentiana_verna.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gentiana verna, the spring gentian, flourishes in dry limestone habitats.[19]"><img alt="Gentiana verna, the spring gentian, flourishes in dry limestone habitats.[19]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Gentiana_verna.jpg/225px-Gentiana_verna.jpg" decoding="async" width="225" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Gentiana_verna.jpg/338px-Gentiana_verna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Gentiana_verna.jpg/450px-Gentiana_verna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gentiana_verna" title="Gentiana verna">Gentiana verna</a></i>, the spring gentian, flourishes in dry limestone habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-Pardoe_1995_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pardoe_1995-19">[19]</a></sup></div>
</li>
</ul>
<p>Some specialised angiosperms are able to flourish in extremely acid or alkaline habitats. The <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sundew" class="mw-redirect" title="Sundew">sundews</a>, many of which live in nutrient-poor acid <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bog" title="Bog">bogs</a>, are <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Carnivorous_plant" title="Carnivorous plant">carnivorous plants</a>, able to derive nutrients such as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a> from the bodies of trapped insects.<sup id="cite_ref-Karlsson_1992_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karlsson_1992-18">[18]</a></sup> Other flowers such as <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gentiana_verna" title="Gentiana verna">Gentiana verna</a></i>, the spring gentian, are adapted to the alkaline conditions found on <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>-rich <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chalk" title="Chalk">chalk</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>, which give rise to often dry <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Topography" title="Topography">topographies</a> such as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Limestone_pavement" title="Limestone pavement">limestone pavement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pardoe_1995_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pardoe_1995-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines center">
<li class="gallerycaption">Herbaceous, woody, climbing</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 225px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:GT_Herb_Robert.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Geranium robertianum, herb-Robert, is an annual or biennial herb of Europe and North America."><img alt="Geranium robertianum, herb-Robert, is an annual or biennial herb of Europe and North America." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/GT_Herb_Robert.jpg/169px-GT_Herb_Robert.jpg" decoding="async" width="169" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/GT_Herb_Robert.jpg/253px-GT_Herb_Robert.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/GT_Herb_Robert.jpg/337px-GT_Herb_Robert.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="4608" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Geranium_robertianum" title="Geranium robertianum">Geranium robertianum</a></i>, herb-Robert, is an annual or <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Biennial_plant" title="Biennial plant">biennial</a> herb of Europe and North America.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 225px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Betula_pendula_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Betula pendula, the silver birch, is a perennial deciduous tree of Eurasia."><img alt="Betula pendula, the silver birch, is a perennial deciduous tree of Eurasia." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Betula_pendula_001.jpg/168px-Betula_pendula_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="168" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Betula_pendula_001.jpg/253px-Betula_pendula_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Betula_pendula_001.jpg/336px-Betula_pendula_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2576" data-file-height="3444" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Betula_pendula" title="Betula pendula">Betula pendula</a></i>, the silver birch, is a perennial <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Deciduous" title="Deciduous">deciduous</a> tree of Eurasia.</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 230px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 225px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Lianas.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lianas Austrosteenisia, Parsonsia, and Sarcopetalum climbing trees in Australia"><img alt="Lianas Austrosteenisia, Parsonsia, and Sarcopetalum climbing trees in Australia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Lianas.jpg/169px-Lianas.jpg" decoding="async" width="169" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Lianas.jpg/253px-Lianas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Lianas.jpg/337px-Lianas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a> <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Austrosteenisia" title="Austrosteenisia">Austrosteenisia</a></i>, <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Parsonsia" title="Parsonsia">Parsonsia</a></i>, and <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sarcopetalum" title="Sarcopetalum">Sarcopetalum</a></i> climbing trees in Australia</div>
</li>
</ul>
<p>As for their <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Growth_habit" class="mw-redirect" title="Growth habit">growth habit</a>, the flowering plants range from small, soft <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">herbaceous plants</a>, often living as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Annual_plant" title="Annual plant">annuals</a> or <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Biennials" class="mw-redirect" title="Biennials">biennials</a> that set seed and die after one growing season,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> to large <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Perennial_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Perennial plant">perennial</a> woody <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Tree" title="Tree">trees</a> that may live for many centuries and grow to many metres in height. Some species grow tall without being self-supporting like trees by <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Climbing_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Climbing plant">climbing</a> on other plants in the manner of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Vine" title="Vine">vines</a> or <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Liana" title="Liana">lianas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Taxonomic_diversity">Taxonomic diversity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Taxonomic diversity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> This compares to around 12,000 species of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Moss" title="Moss">moss</a><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> and 11,000 species of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pteridophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridophyta">pteridophytes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> The <a href="./wiki.php?slug=APG_system" title="APG system">APG system</a> seeks to determine the number of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">families</a>, mostly by <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular phylogenetics</a>. In the 2009 <a href="./wiki.php?slug=APG_III" class="mw-redirect" title="APG III">APG III</a> there were 415 families.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2009_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2009-27">[27]</a></sup> The 2016 <a href="./wiki.php?slug=APG_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="APG IV">APG IV</a> added five new orders (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), along with some new families, for a total of 64 angiosperm orders and 416 families.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2016_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2016-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families. The 25 most species-rich of 443 families,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup> containing over 166,000 species between them in their APG circumscriptions, are:
</p>
<table class="wikitable sortable">
<caption>The 25 largest angiosperm families
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Group</th>
<th><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">Family</a></th>
<th>English name</th>
<th>No. of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Species" title="Species">spp.</a>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Asteraceae" title="Asteraceae">Asteraceae</a> or Compositae</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bellis_perennis" title="Bellis perennis">daisy</a></td>
<td>22,750
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Monocot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Orchidaceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Orchidaceae">Orchidaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Orchid" title="Orchid">orchid</a></td>
<td>21,950
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fabaceae" title="Fabaceae">Fabaceae</a> or Leguminosae</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pea" title="Pea">pea</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Legume" title="Legume">legume</a></td>
<td>19,400
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rubiaceae" title="Rubiaceae">Rubiaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rubia" title="Rubia">madder</a></td>
<td>13,150 <sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Monocot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Poaceae" title="Poaceae">Poaceae</a> or Gramineae</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Grass">grass</a></td>
<td>10,035
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Lamiaceae" title="Lamiaceae">Lamiaceae</a> or Labiatae</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Mentha" title="Mentha">mint</a></td>
<td>7,175
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Euphorbiaceae" title="Euphorbiaceae">Euphorbiaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Spurge" class="mw-redirect" title="Spurge">spurge</a></td>
<td>5,735
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Melastomataceae" title="Melastomataceae">Melastomataceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Melastoma" title="Melastoma">melastome</a></td>
<td>5,005
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Myrtaceae" title="Myrtaceae">Myrtaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Myrtus" title="Myrtus">myrtle</a></td>
<td>4,625
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Apocynaceae" title="Apocynaceae">Apocynaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Dogbane" title="Dogbane">dogbane</a></td>
<td>4,555
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Monocot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cyperaceae" title="Cyperaceae">Cyperaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sedge" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedge">sedge</a></td>
<td>4,350
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Malvaceae" title="Malvaceae">Malvaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Malva" title="Malva">mallow</a></td>
<td>4,225
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Monocot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Araceae" title="Araceae">Araceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Arum" title="Arum">arum</a></td>
<td>4,025
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ericaceae" title="Ericaceae">Ericaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Erica_(plant)" title="Erica (plant)">heath</a></td>
<td>3,995
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gesneriaceae" title="Gesneriaceae">Gesneriaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gesneria" title="Gesneria">gesneriad</a></td>
<td>3,870
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Apiaceae" title="Apiaceae">Apiaceae</a> or Umbelliferae</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Parsley" title="Parsley">parsley</a></td>
<td>3,780
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Brassicaceae" title="Brassicaceae">Brassicaceae</a> or Cruciferae</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cabbage" title="Cabbage">cabbage</a></td>
<td>3,710
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Magnoliid dicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Piperaceae" title="Piperaceae">Piperaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Piper_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Piper (genus)">pepper</a></td>
<td>3,600
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Monocot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bromeliaceae" title="Bromeliaceae">Bromeliaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bromelia" title="Bromelia">bromeliad</a></td>
<td>3,540
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Acanthaceae" title="Acanthaceae">Acanthaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Acanthus_(plant)" title="Acanthus (plant)">acanthus</a></td>
<td>3,500
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rosaceae" title="Rosaceae">Rosaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rose" title="Rose">rose</a></td>
<td>2,830
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Boraginaceae" title="Boraginaceae">Boraginaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Borage" title="Borage">borage</a></td>
<td>2,740
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Urticaceae" title="Urticaceae">Urticaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Urtica_dioica" title="Urtica dioica">nettle</a></td>
<td>2,625
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Eudicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ranunculaceae" title="Ranunculaceae">Ranunculaceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Buttercup" class="mw-redirect" title="Buttercup">buttercup</a></td>
<td>2,525
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Magnoliid dicot</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Lauraceae" title="Lauraceae">Lauraceae</a></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Laurus" title="Laurus">laurel</a></td>
<td>2,500
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Evolution">Evolution</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="History_of_classification">History of classification</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: History of classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Ehret-Methodus_Plantarum_Sexualis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Ehret-Methodus_Plantarum_Sexualis.jpg/170px-Ehret-Methodus_Plantarum_Sexualis.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Ehret-Methodus_Plantarum_Sexualis.jpg/255px-Ehret-Methodus_Plantarum_Sexualis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Ehret-Methodus_Plantarum_Sexualis.jpg/340px-Ehret-Methodus_Plantarum_Sexualis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2123" data-file-height="2968" /></a><figcaption>From 1736, an illustration of Linnaean classification</figcaption></figure>
<p>The botanical term "angiosperm", from Greek words <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">angeíon</i></span> (<span lang="grc"><a class="extiw" title="wikt:ἀγγεῖον">ἀγγεῖον</a></span> 'bottle, vessel') and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">spérma</i></span> (<span lang="grc"><a class="extiw" title="wikt:σπέρμα">σπέρμα</a></span> 'seed'), was coined in the form "Angiospermae" by <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Paul_Hermann_(botanist)" title="Paul Hermann (botanist)">Paul Hermann</a> in 1690, including only flowering plants whose seeds were enclosed in capsules.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBalfourRendle19119_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBalfourRendle19119-30">[30]</a></sup> The term angiosperm fundamentally changed in meaning in 1827 with <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Robert_Brown_(Scottish_botanist_from_Montrose)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)">Robert Brown</a>, when angiosperm came to mean a seed plant with enclosed ovules.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Buggs_22–36_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buggs_22–36-32">[32]</a></sup> In 1851, with <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Wilhelm_Friedrich_Benedikt_Hofmeister" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm Friedrich Benedikt Hofmeister">Wilhelm Hofmeister</a>'s work on embryo-sacs, Angiosperm came to have its modern meaning of all the flowering plants including Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons.<sup id="cite_ref-Buggs_22–36_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buggs_22–36-32">[32]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBalfourRendle191110_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBalfourRendle191110-33">[33]</a></sup> The <a href="./wiki.php?slug=APG_system" title="APG system">APG system</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2009_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2009-27">[27]</a></sup> treats the flowering plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms). A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank as the subclass Magnoliidae.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaseReveal2009_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaseReveal2009-34">[34]</a></sup> From 1998, the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Angiosperm_Phylogeny_Group" title="Angiosperm Phylogeny Group">Angiosperm Phylogeny Group</a> (APG) has reclassified the angiosperms, with updates in the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=APG_II_system" title="APG II system">APG II system</a> in 2003,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2003_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2003-35">[35]</a></sup> the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=APG_III_system" title="APG III system">APG III system</a> in 2009,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2009_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2009-27">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup> and the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=APG_IV_system" title="APG IV system">APG IV system</a> in 2016.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2016_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2016-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Phylogeny">Phylogeny</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Phylogeny"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="External">External</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: External"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>In 2019, a <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular phylogeny</a> of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> placed the flowering plants in their evolutionary context:<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216293433">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.1em;padding:0 0.15em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0 0.15em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style>
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">Embryophytes</a>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
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<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
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<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophytes</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:WWB-0265-127-Polytrichum_formosum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/WWB-0265-127-Polytrichum_formosum.png/20px-WWB-0265-127-Polytrichum_formosum.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/WWB-0265-127-Polytrichum_formosum.png/30px-WWB-0265-127-Polytrichum_formosum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/WWB-0265-127-Polytrichum_formosum.png/40px-WWB-0265-127-Polytrichum_formosum.png 2x" data-file-width="694" data-file-height="2499" /></a></span>
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<td class="clade-slabel">
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<td class="clade-label"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Tracheophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Tracheophyte">Tracheophytes</a>
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<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
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<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophytes</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Lycopodium_clavatum_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-219_(extracted).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Lycopodium_clavatum_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-219_%28extracted%29.jpg/50px-Lycopodium_clavatum_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-219_%28extracted%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Lycopodium_clavatum_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-219_%28extracted%29.jpg/75px-Lycopodium_clavatum_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-219_%28extracted%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Lycopodium_clavatum_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-219_%28extracted%29.jpg/100px-Lycopodium_clavatum_-_K%C3%B6hler%E2%80%93s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-219_%28extracted%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="377" data-file-height="548" /></a></span>
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<td class="clade-slabel">
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<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fern" title="Fern">Ferns</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:The_ferns_of_Great_Britain,_and_their_allies_the_club-mosses,_pepperworts,_and_horsetails_(Pl._12)_(8516512808).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/The_ferns_of_Great_Britain%2C_and_their_allies_the_club-mosses%2C_pepperworts%2C_and_horsetails_%28Pl._12%29_%288516512808%29.jpg/40px-The_ferns_of_Great_Britain%2C_and_their_allies_the_club-mosses%2C_pepperworts%2C_and_horsetails_%28Pl._12%29_%288516512808%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/The_ferns_of_Great_Britain%2C_and_their_allies_the_club-mosses%2C_pepperworts%2C_and_horsetails_%28Pl._12%29_%288516512808%29.jpg/60px-The_ferns_of_Great_Britain%2C_and_their_allies_the_club-mosses%2C_pepperworts%2C_and_horsetails_%28Pl._12%29_%288516512808%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/The_ferns_of_Great_Britain%2C_and_their_allies_the_club-mosses%2C_pepperworts%2C_and_horsetails_%28Pl._12%29_%288516512808%29.jpg/80px-The_ferns_of_Great_Britain%2C_and_their_allies_the_club-mosses%2C_pepperworts%2C_and_horsetails_%28Pl._12%29_%288516512808%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1397" data-file-height="2528" /></a></span>
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<td class="clade-slabel">
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<td class="clade-label"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a>
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<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
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<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperms</a>
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<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Pinus_montesumae_tab22_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Pinus_montesumae_tab22_2.jpg/50px-Pinus_montesumae_tab22_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Pinus_montesumae_tab22_2.jpg/75px-Pinus_montesumae_tab22_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Pinus_montesumae_tab22_2.jpg/100px-Pinus_montesumae_tab22_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="328" data-file-height="534" /></a></span>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">conifers and allies
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label"><b>Angiosperms</b>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:160_Ranunculus_repens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/160_Ranunculus_repens.jpg/50px-160_Ranunculus_repens.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/160_Ranunculus_repens.jpg/75px-160_Ranunculus_repens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/160_Ranunculus_repens.jpg/100px-160_Ranunculus_repens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="469" data-file-height="749" /></a></span>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last"><b>flowering plants</b>
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">seed plants
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">vascular plants
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">land plants
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Internal">Internal</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Internal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p>The main groups of living angiosperms are:<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2016_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2016-1">[1]</a></sup>
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<td class="clade-label first"><b> Angiosperms </b>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Amborellales" class="mw-redirect" title="Amborellales">Amborellales</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Amborella_trichopoda.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Amborella_trichopoda.jpg/70px-Amborella_trichopoda.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Amborella_trichopoda.jpg/105px-Amborella_trichopoda.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Amborella_trichopoda.jpg/140px-Amborella_trichopoda.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2400" /></a></span> 1 sp. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> shrub
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nymphaeales" title="Nymphaeales">Nymphaeales</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:2007_nymphaea_lotus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/2007_nymphaea_lotus.jpg/70px-2007_nymphaea_lotus.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/2007_nymphaea_lotus.jpg/105px-2007_nymphaea_lotus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/2007_nymphaea_lotus.jpg/140px-2007_nymphaea_lotus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span> c. 80 spp.<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer-2004_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer-2004-39">[39]</a></sup> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nymphaeaceae" title="Nymphaeaceae">water lilies</a> & allies
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Austrobaileyales" title="Austrobaileyales">Austrobaileyales</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Schisandra_rubriflora.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Schisandra_rubriflora.jpg/70px-Schisandra_rubriflora.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Schisandra_rubriflora.jpg/105px-Schisandra_rubriflora.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Schisandra_rubriflora.jpg/140px-Schisandra_rubriflora.jpg 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="394" /></a></span> c. 100 spp.<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer-2004_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer-2004-39">[39]</a></sup> woody plants
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Magnoliids" title="Magnoliids">Magnoliids</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Magnolia_obovata_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Magnolia_obovata_02.jpg/70px-Magnolia_obovata_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Magnolia_obovata_02.jpg/105px-Magnolia_obovata_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Magnolia_obovata_02.jpg/140px-Magnolia_obovata_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></span> c. 10,000 spp.<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer-2004_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer-2004-39">[39]</a></sup> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Merosity" title="Merosity">3-part</a> flowers, 1-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chloranthales" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloranthales">Chloranthales</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Sarcandra_glabra2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Sarcandra_glabra2.jpg/70px-Sarcandra_glabra2.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="52" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Sarcandra_glabra2.jpg/105px-Sarcandra_glabra2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Sarcandra_glabra2.jpg/140px-Sarcandra_glabra2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1712" /></a></span> 77 spp.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup> Woody, apetalous
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Monocots" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocots">Monocots</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:White_orchid_in_Clara_bog._03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/White_orchid_in_Clara_bog._03.jpg/45px-White_orchid_in_Clara_bog._03.jpg" decoding="async" width="45" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/White_orchid_in_Clara_bog._03.jpg/68px-White_orchid_in_Clara_bog._03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/White_orchid_in_Clara_bog._03.jpg/90px-White_orchid_in_Clara_bog._03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2268" data-file-height="4032" /></a></span> c. 70,000 spp.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup> 3-part flowers, 1 <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cotyledon" title="Cotyledon">cotyledon</a>, 1-pore pollen, usu. parallel-veined leaves  
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ceratophyllales" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceratophyllales">Ceratophyllales</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:CeratophyllumSubmersum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/CeratophyllumSubmersum.jpg/70px-CeratophyllumSubmersum.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="51" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/CeratophyllumSubmersum.jpg/105px-CeratophyllumSubmersum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/CeratophyllumSubmersum.jpg/140px-CeratophyllumSubmersum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1097" data-file-height="794" /></a></span> c. 6 spp.<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer-2004_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer-2004-39">[39]</a></sup> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Aquatic_plant" title="Aquatic plant">aquatic plants</a>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Eudicots" title="Eudicots">Eudicots</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Senecio_angulatus_003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Senecio_angulatus_003.jpg/70px-Senecio_angulatus_003.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Senecio_angulatus_003.jpg/105px-Senecio_angulatus_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Senecio_angulatus_003.jpg/140px-Senecio_angulatus_003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span> c. 175,000 spp.<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer-2004_39-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer-2004-39">[39]</a></sup> 4- or 5-part flowers, 3-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves
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<div style="position:absolute;top:6.48em;color:black;white-space:nowrap"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Basal_angiosperms" title="Basal angiosperms">Basal angiosperms</a></div>
<div style="position:absolute;top:27.68em;color:black;white-space:nowrap"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Core_angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Core angiosperms">Core angiosperms</a></div></div>
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<th style="background:#F0F2F5">Detailed <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cladogram" title="Cladogram">Cladogram</a> of the 2016 <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Angiosperm_Phylogeny_Group" title="Angiosperm Phylogeny Group">Angiosperm Phylogeny Group</a> (APG) IV classification.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2016_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2016-1">[1]</a></sup>
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<td class="clade-label first"><b>Angiosperms</b>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Amborellales" class="mw-redirect" title="Amborellales">Amborellales</a> <small>Melikyan, Bobrov & Zaytzeva 1999</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nymphaeales" title="Nymphaeales">Nymphaeales</a> <small>Salisbury ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Austrobaileyales" title="Austrobaileyales">Austrobaileyales</a> <small>Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chloranthales" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloranthales">Chloranthales</a> <small>Mart. 1835</small>
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<td class="clade-label first"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Magnoliids" title="Magnoliids">Magnoliids</a>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Canellales" title="Canellales">Canellales</a> <small>Cronquist 1957</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Piperales" title="Piperales">Piperales</a> <small>von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Magnoliales" title="Magnoliales">Magnoliales</a> <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Laurales" title="Laurales">Laurales</a> <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Acorales" class="mw-redirect" title="Acorales">Acorales</a> <small>Link 1835</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Alismatales" title="Alismatales">Alismatales</a> <small>Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Petrosaviales" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrosaviales">Petrosaviales</a> <small>Takhtajan 1997</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Dioscoreales" title="Dioscoreales">Dioscoreales</a> <small>Brown 1835</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pandanales" title="Pandanales">Pandanales</a> <small>Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Liliales" title="Liliales">Liliales</a> <small>Perleb 1826</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Asparagales" title="Asparagales">Asparagales</a> <small>Link 1829</small>
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<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Arecales" title="Arecales">Arecales</a> <small>Bromhead 1840</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Poales" title="Poales">Poales</a> <small>Small 1903</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Zingiberales" title="Zingiberales">Zingiberales</a> <small>Grisebach 1854</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Commelinales" title="Commelinales">Commelinales</a> <small>de Mirbel ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ceratophyllales" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceratophyllales">Ceratophyllales</a> <small>Link 1829</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Eudicots" title="Eudicots">Eudicots</a>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ranunculales" title="Ranunculales">Ranunculales</a> <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Proteales" title="Proteales">Proteales</a> <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Trochodendrales" class="mw-redirect" title="Trochodendrales">Trochodendrales</a> <small>Takhtajan ex Cronquist 1981</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Buxales" title="Buxales">Buxales</a> <small>Takhtajan ex Reveal 1996</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Core_eudicots" class="mw-redirect" title="Core eudicots">Core eudicots</a>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gunnerales" title="Gunnerales">Gunnerales</a> <small>Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Dilleniales" title="Dilleniales">Dilleniales</a> <small>de Candolle ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Superrosids" title="Superrosids">Superrosids</a>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Saxifragales" title="Saxifragales">Saxifragales</a> <small>von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rosids" title="Rosids">Rosids</a>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Vitales" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitales">Vitales</a> <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">Fabids
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Zygophyllales" title="Zygophyllales">Zygophyllales</a> <small>Link 1829</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Celastrales" title="Celastrales">Celastrales</a> <small>Link 1829</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Oxalidales" title="Oxalidales">Oxalidales</a> <small>von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Malpighiales" title="Malpighiales">Malpighiales</a> <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fabales" title="Fabales">Fabales</a> <small>Bromhead 1838</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rosales" title="Rosales">Rosales</a> <small>von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cucurbitales" title="Cucurbitales">Cucurbitales</a> <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fagales" title="Fagales">Fagales</a> <small>Engler 1892</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">(eurosids I)
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">Malvids
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Geraniales" title="Geraniales">Geraniales</a> <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Myrtales" title="Myrtales">Myrtales</a> <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Crossosomatales" title="Crossosomatales">Crossosomatales</a> <small>Takhtajan ex Reveal 1993</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Picramniales" class="mw-redirect" title="Picramniales">Picramniales</a> <small>Doweld 2001</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sapindales" title="Sapindales">Sapindales</a> <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Huerteales" title="Huerteales">Huerteales</a> <small>Doweld 2001</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Malvales" title="Malvales">Malvales</a> <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Brassicales" title="Brassicales">Brassicales</a> <small>Bromhead 1838</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">(eurosids II)
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel last">
</td></tr></tbody></table></div>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Superasterids" title="Superasterids">Superasterids</a>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Berberidopsidales" title="Berberidopsidales">Berberidopsidales</a> <small>Doweld 2001</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Santalales" title="Santalales">Santalales</a> <small>Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Caryophyllales" title="Caryophyllales">Caryophyllales</a>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Asterids" title="Asterids">Asterids</a>
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cornales" title="Cornales">Cornales</a> <small>Link 1829</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ericales" title="Ericales">Ericales</a> <small>von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">Lamiids
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Icacinales" title="Icacinales">Icacinales</a> <small>Van Tieghem 1900</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Metteniusales" class="mw-redirect" title="Metteniusales">Metteniusales</a> <small>Takhtajan 1997</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Garryales" title="Garryales">Garryales</a> <small>Mart. 1835</small>
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-slabel">
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="clade-label">
</td>
<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style">
<table class="clade">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="clade-label first">
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<td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gentianales" title="Gentianales">Gentianales</a> <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Vahliales" class="mw-redirect" title="Vahliales">Vahliales</a> <small>Doweld 2001</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Escalloniales" class="mw-redirect" title="Escalloniales">Escalloniales</a> <small>Mart. 1835</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Asterales" title="Asterales">Asterales</a> <small>Link 1829</small>
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<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Dipsacales" title="Dipsacales">Dipsacales</a> <small>de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820</small>
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<p>In 2024, Alexandre R. Zuntini and colleagues constructed a tree of some 6,000 flowering plant genera, representing some 60% of the existing genera, on the basis of analysis of 353 nuclear genes in each specimen. Much of the existing phylogeny is confirmed; the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rosidae" title="Rosidae">rosid</a> phylogeny is revised.<sup id="cite_ref-Zuntini_et_al_2024_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zuntini_et_al_2024-42">[42]</a></sup>
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<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Tree_of_Angiosperm_Phylogeny_2024.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Tree_of_Angiosperm_Phylogeny_2024.jpg/660px-Tree_of_Angiosperm_Phylogeny_2024.jpg" decoding="async" width="660" height="666" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Tree_of_Angiosperm_Phylogeny_2024.jpg/990px-Tree_of_Angiosperm_Phylogeny_2024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Tree_of_Angiosperm_Phylogeny_2024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1282" data-file-height="1293" /></a><figcaption>Tree of Angiosperm Phylogeny 2024</figcaption></figure>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Fossil_history">Fossil history</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Fossil history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fossil_history_of_flowering_plants" title="Fossil history of flowering plants">Fossil history of flowering plants</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Sagaria_cilentana_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Sagaria_cilentana_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Sagaria_cilentana_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Sagaria_cilentana_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Sagaria_cilentana_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Sagaria_cilentana_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Sagaria_cilentana_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1128" data-file-height="1326" /></a><figcaption><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a> in the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> created many flowering plants, such as <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sagaria" title="Sagaria">Sagaria</a></i> in the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ranunculaceae" title="Ranunculaceae">Ranunculaceae</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<p>Fossilised <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> suggest that land plants (<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">embryophytes</a>) have existed for at least 475 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup> However, angiosperms <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Abominable_mystery" class="mw-redirect" title="Abominable mystery">appear suddenly</a> and in great diversity in the fossil record in the Early Cretaceous (~130 mya).<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup> Claimed records of flowering plants prior to this are not widely accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></sup> Molecular evidence suggests that the ancestors of angiosperms diverged from the gymnosperms during the late <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a>, about 365 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup> The origin time of the crown group of flowering plants remains contentious.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></sup> By the Late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a>. Large canopy-forming trees replaced <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Conifer" title="Conifer">conifers</a> as the dominant trees close to the end of the Cretaceous, 66 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup> The radiation of herbaceous angiosperms occurred much later.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a></sup> In April 2024, scientists reported an overview of the origin and development of flowering plants over the years based on extensive genetic studies.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20240511_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20240511-51">[51]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NAT-20240424_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20240424-52">[52]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Reproduction">Reproduction</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Flowers">Flowers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Flowers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Plant reproductive morphology</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Angiosperm_life_cycle_diagram-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Angiosperm_life_cycle_diagram-en.svg/440px-Angiosperm_life_cycle_diagram-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="506" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Angiosperm_life_cycle_diagram-en.svg/660px-Angiosperm_life_cycle_diagram-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Angiosperm_life_cycle_diagram-en.svg/880px-Angiosperm_life_cycle_diagram-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="575" /></a><figcaption>Angiosperm <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Flower" title="Flower">flower</a> showing <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">reproductive parts</a> and life cycle</figcaption></figure>
<p>The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Its function is to ensure <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">fertilization</a> of the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ovule" title="Ovule">ovule</a> and development of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fruit" title="Fruit">fruit</a> containing <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Seed" title="Seed">seeds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a></sup> It may arise terminally on a shoot or from the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Axil" class="mw-redirect" title="Axil">axil</a> of a leaf.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> The flower-bearing part of the plant is usually sharply distinguished from the leaf-bearing part, and forms a branch-system called an <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">inflorescence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBalfourRendle191110_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBalfourRendle191110-33">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>Flowers produce two kinds of reproductive cells. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspores</a>, which divide to become <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen grains</a>, are the male cells; they are borne in the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Stamen" title="Stamen">stamens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Salisbury-1970_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salisbury-1970-55">[55]</a></sup> The female cells, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Megaspore" title="Megaspore">megaspores</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Megagametogenesis" title="Megagametogenesis">divide to become the egg cell</a>. They are contained in the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ovule" title="Ovule">ovule</a> and enclosed in the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">carpel</a>; one or more carpels form the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pistil" class="mw-redirect" title="Pistil">pistil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Salisbury-1970_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salisbury-1970-55">[55]</a></sup>
</p><p>The flower may consist only of these parts, as in <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Anemophily" title="Anemophily">wind-pollinated</a> plants like the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Willow" title="Willow">willow</a>, where each flower comprises only a few <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Stamen" title="Stamen">stamens</a> or two carpels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBalfourRendle191110_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBalfourRendle191110-33">[33]</a></sup> In <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Entomophily" title="Entomophily">insect-</a> or <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ornithophily" title="Ornithophily">bird-pollinated</a> plants, other structures protect the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">sporophylls</a> and attract pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding structures are known as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sepal" title="Sepal">sepals</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Petal" title="Petal">petals</a> (or <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Tepal" title="Tepal">tepals</a> in flowers such as <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Magnolia" title="Magnolia">Magnolia</a></i> where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20107_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20107-56">[56]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016225_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016225-57">[57]</a></sup> The inner series (corolla of petals) is, in general, white or brightly colored, is more delicate in structure, and attracts pollinators by colour, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Floral_scent" title="Floral scent">scent</a>, and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nectar" title="Nectar">nectar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20108_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20108-58">[58]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016226_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016226-59">[59]</a></sup>
</p><p>Most flowers are <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Hermaphrodite#Plants" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphroditic</a>, producing both pollen and ovules in the same flower, but some use other devices to reduce self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have carpels and stamens of differing lengths, so animal <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pollinator" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a> cannot easily transfer pollen between them. Homomorphic flowers may use a biochemical <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Self-incompatibility_in_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-incompatibility in plants">self-incompatibility</a> to discriminate between self and non-self pollen grains. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Dioecious" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioecious">Dioecious</a> plants such as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Holly" title="Holly">holly</a> have male and female flowers on separate plants.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Monoecious" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoecious">Monoecious</a> plants have separate male and female flowers on the same plant; these are often wind-pollinated,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup> as in <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup> but include some insect-pollinated plants such as <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cucurbita" title="Cucurbita">Cucurbita</a></i> squashes.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Fertilisation_and_embryogenesis">Fertilisation and embryogenesis</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Fertilisation and embryogenesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">Fertilization</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_embryogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant embryogenesis">Plant embryogenesis</a></div>
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a> requires two sperm cells to fertilise cells in the ovule. A <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> grain sticks to the stigma at the top of the pistil, germinates, and grows a long <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">pollen tube</a>. A haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid (<i>n</i>) sperm cells. The pollen tube grows from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary. When it reaches the micropyle of the ovule, it digests its way into one of the synergids, releasing its contents including the sperm cells. The synergid that the cells were released into degenerates; one sperm makes its way to fertilise the egg cell, producing a diploid (2<i>n</i>) zygote. The second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3<i>n</i>) cell. The zygote develops into an embryo; the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, the embryo's food supply. The ovary develops into a fruit. and each ovule into a seed.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Fruit_and_seed">Fruit and seed</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Fruit and seed"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Aesculus_hippocastanum_fruit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Aesculus_hippocastanum_fruit.jpg/220px-Aesculus_hippocastanum_fruit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Aesculus_hippocastanum_fruit.jpg/330px-Aesculus_hippocastanum_fruit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Aesculus_hippocastanum_fruit.jpg/440px-Aesculus_hippocastanum_fruit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The fruit of the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Aesculus_hippocastanum" title="Aesculus hippocastanum">horse chestnut</a> tree, showing the large seed inside the fruit, which is <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Dehiscence_(botany)" title="Dehiscence (botany)">dehiscing or splitting open</a>.</figcaption></figure>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a></div>
<p>As the embryo and endosperm develop, the wall of the embryo sac enlarges and combines with the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nucellus" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucellus">nucellus</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Integument" title="Integument">integument</a> to form the <i>seed coat</i>. The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pericarp" class="mw-redirect" title="Pericarp">pericarp</a>, whose form is closely associated with type of seed dispersal system.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup>
</p><p>Other parts of the flower often contribute to forming the fruit. For example, in the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Apple" title="Apple">apple</a>, the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">hypanthium</a> forms the edible flesh, surrounding the ovaries which form the tough cases around the seeds.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Apomixis" title="Apomixis">Apomixis</a>, setting seed without fertilization, is found naturally in about 2.2% of angiosperm genera.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup> Some angiosperms, including many <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Citrus" title="Citrus">citrus</a> varieties, are able to produce fruits through a type of apomixis called <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nucellar_embryony" title="Nucellar embryony">nucellar embryony</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sexual_selection">Sexual selection</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Sexual selection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Sexual selection in flowering plants</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">
<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> is described as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> arising through preference by one sex for certain characteristics in individuals of the other sex. Sexual selection is a common concept in animal <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> but, with <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, it is often overlooked because many plants are <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphrodites</a>. Flowering plants show many characteristics that are often sexually selected for. For example, flower symmetry, nectar production, floral structure, and inflorescences are just a few of the many secondary sex characteristics acted upon by sexual selection. Sexual dimorphisms and reproductive organs can also be affected by sexual selection in flowering plants.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup></div></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Adaptive_function_of_flowers">Adaptive function of flowers</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Adaptive function of flowers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Charles Darwin in his 1878 book The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup> in the initial paragraph of chapter XII noted "The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented." <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Flower" title="Flower">Flowers</a> emerged in plant evolution as an adaptation for the promotion of cross-<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">fertilisation</a> (<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Outcrossing" title="Outcrossing">outcrossing</a>), a process that allows the masking of deleterious <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> in the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> of progeny. The masking effect is known as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Complementation_(genetics)" title="Complementation (genetics)">genetic complementation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein1985_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein1985-72">[72]</a></sup> This beneficial effect of cross-fertilisation on progeny is also referred to as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Hybrid_vigour" class="mw-redirect" title="Hybrid vigour">hybrid vigor</a> or <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Heterosis" title="Heterosis">heterosis</a>. Once flowers became established in a lineage as an evolutionary adaptation to promote cross-fertilization, subsequent switching to inbreeding usually becomes disadvantageous, in large part because it allows expression of the previously masked deleterious recessive mutations, i.e. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Inbreeding_depression" title="Inbreeding depression">inbreeding depression</a>.
</p><p>Also, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a> in flowering plants provides a direct mechanism for <a href="./wiki.php?slug=DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">repairing DNA</a> through genetic recombination in reproductive tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-Horandl2024_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horandl2024-73">[73]</a></sup> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> appears to be required for maintaining long-term <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Genome" title="Genome">genomic</a> integrity and only infrequent combinations of extrinsic and intrinsic factors permit shifts to asexuality.<sup id="cite_ref-Horandl2024_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horandl2024-73">[73]</a></sup> Thus the two fundamental aspects of sexual reproduction in flowering plants, cross-fertilization (outcrossing) and meiosis appear to be maintained respectively by the advantages of genetic complementation and recombinational repair.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein1985_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein1985-72">[72]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Interactions_with_humans">Interactions with humans</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Interactions with humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Human_uses_of_plants" title="Human uses of plants">Human uses of plants</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Practical_uses">Practical uses</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Practical uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Rice_Harvest_2020_-_50248478521.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Rice_Harvest_2020_-_50248478521.jpg/220px-Rice_Harvest_2020_-_50248478521.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Rice_Harvest_2020_-_50248478521.jpg/330px-Rice_Harvest_2020_-_50248478521.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Rice_Harvest_2020_-_50248478521.jpg/440px-Rice_Harvest_2020_-_50248478521.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1848" /></a><figcaption>Harvesting <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rice" title="Rice">rice</a> in Arkansas, 2020</figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Daal_after_Tadka_Pulse_Soup_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Daal_after_Tadka_Pulse_Soup_India.jpg/220px-Daal_after_Tadka_Pulse_Soup_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Daal_after_Tadka_Pulse_Soup_India.jpg/330px-Daal_after_Tadka_Pulse_Soup_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Daal_after_Tadka_Pulse_Soup_India.jpg/440px-Daal_after_Tadka_Pulse_Soup_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="678" /></a><figcaption>Food from plants: a dish of <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Dal_tadka" class="mw-redirect" title="Dal tadka">Dal tadka</a></i>, Indian lentil soup</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> feed. Much of this food derives from a small number of flowering plant families.<sup id="cite_ref-Dilcher_Cronquist_2016_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilcher_Cronquist_2016-74">[74]</a></sup> For instance, half of the world's <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Calorie" title="Calorie">calorie</a> intake is supplied by just three plants - <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rice" title="Rice">rice</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup>
</p>
<table class="wikitable">
<caption>Major food-providing families<sup id="cite_ref-Dilcher_Cronquist_2016_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilcher_Cronquist_2016-74">[74]</a></sup>
</caption>
<tbody><tr>
<th>Family</th>
<th>English</th>
<th>Example foods from that family
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Poaceae" title="Poaceae">Poaceae</a></td>
<td>Grasses, cereals</td>
<td>Most feedstocks, inc. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rice" title="Rice">rice</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rye" title="Rye">rye</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Oat" title="Oat">oats</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pearl_millet" title="Pearl millet">pearl millet</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sugar_cane" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar cane">sugar cane</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fabaceae" title="Fabaceae">Fabaceae</a></td>
<td>Legumes, pea family</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pea" title="Pea">Peas</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bean" title="Bean">beans</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Lentils" class="mw-redirect" title="Lentils">lentils</a>; for animal feed, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Clover" title="Clover">clover</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Alfalfa" title="Alfalfa">alfalfa</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Solanaceae" title="Solanaceae">Solanaceae</a></td>
<td>Nightshade family</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Potato" title="Potato">Potatoes</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Tomato" title="Tomato">tomatoes</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Capsicum" title="Capsicum">peppers</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Aubergine" class="mw-redirect" title="Aubergine">aubergines</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cucurbitaceae" title="Cucurbitaceae">Cucurbitaceae</a></td>
<td>Gourd family</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cucurbita" title="Cucurbita">Squashes</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cucumber" title="Cucumber">cucumbers</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pumpkin" title="Pumpkin">pumpkins</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Melon" title="Melon">melons</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Brassicaceae" title="Brassicaceae">Brassicaceae</a></td>
<td>Cabbage family</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cabbage" title="Cabbage">Cabbage</a> and its varieties, e.g. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Brussels_sprout" title="Brussels sprout">Brussels sprout</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Broccoli" title="Broccoli">broccoli</a>; <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Mustard_plant" title="Mustard plant">mustard</a>; <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rapeseed" title="Rapeseed">oilseed rape</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Apiaceae" title="Apiaceae">Apiaceae</a></td>
<td>Parsley family</td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Parsnip" title="Parsnip">Parsnip</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Carrot" title="Carrot">carrot</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Parsley" title="Parsley">parsley</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Coriander" title="Coriander">coriander</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fennel" title="Fennel">fennel</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cumin" title="Cumin">cumin</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Caraway" title="Caraway">caraway</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rutaceae" title="Rutaceae">Rutaceae</a></td>
<td>Rue family<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Orange_(fruit)" title="Orange (fruit)">Oranges</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Lemon" title="Lemon">lemons</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Grapefruit" title="Grapefruit">grapefruits</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rosaceae" title="Rosaceae">Rosaceae</a></td>
<td>Rose family<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup></td>
<td><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Apple" title="Apple">Apples</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pear" title="Pear">pears</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cherry" title="Cherry">cherries</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Apricot" title="Apricot">apricots</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plum" title="Plum">plums</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Peach" title="Peach">peaches</a>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Flowering plants provide a diverse range of materials in the form of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Paper" title="Paper">paper</a>, fibers such as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Flax" title="Flax">flax</a>, and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Hemp" title="Hemp">hemp</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Medicinal_plants" title="Medicinal plants">medicines</a> such as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Digoxin" title="Digoxin">digoxin</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Opioid" title="Opioid">opioids</a>, and decorative and landscaping plants. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Coffee" title="Coffee">Coffee</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Hot_chocolate" title="Hot chocolate">hot chocolate</a> are beverages from flowering plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Dilcher_Cronquist_2016_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dilcher_Cronquist_2016-74">[74]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Cultural_uses">Cultural uses</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Cultural uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Kingfisher-iris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kingfisher-iris.jpg/170px-Kingfisher-iris.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Kingfisher-iris.jpg/255px-Kingfisher-iris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Kingfisher-iris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="296" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bird-and-flower_painting" title="Bird-and-flower painting">Bird-and-flower painting</a>: <i>Kingfisher and iris</i> <i>kachō-e</i> woodblock print by Ohara Koson (late 19th century)</figcaption></figure>
<p>Both real and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fictional_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Fictional plants">fictitious plants</a> play a wide variety of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_fictional_plants" title="List of fictional plants">roles in literature and film</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup> Flowers are the subjects of many poems by poets such as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Robert_Frost" title="Robert Frost">Robert Frost</a>, and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Rabindranath Tagore</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bird-and-flower_painting" title="Bird-and-flower painting">Bird-and-flower painting</a> (<span title="Chinese-language romanization"><i lang="zh-Latn">Huaniaohua</i></span>) is a kind of <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chinese_painting" title="Chinese painting">Chinese painting</a> that celebrates the beauty of flowering plants.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup> Flowers have been <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Language_of_flowers" title="Language of flowers">used in literature to convey meaning</a> by authors including <a href="./wiki.php?slug=William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></sup>
Flowers are used in a variety of art forms which arrange cut or living plants, such as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bonsai" title="Bonsai">bonsai</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ikebana" title="Ikebana">ikebana</a>, and flower arranging. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ornamental_plant" title="Ornamental plant">Ornamental plants</a> have sometimes changed the course of history, as in <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Tulip_mania" title="Tulip mania">tulipomania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup> Many countries and regions have <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Floral_emblem" class="mw-redirect" title="Floral emblem">floral emblems</a>; a survey of 70 of these found that the most popular flowering plant family for such emblems is Orchidaceae at 15.7% (11 emblems), followed by Fabaceae at 10% (7 emblems), and Asparagaceae, Asteraceae, and Rosaceae all at 5.7% (4 emblems each).<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Conservation">Conservation</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Conservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG/200px-Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG/300px-Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG/400px-Viola_calcarata20052002fleur2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Viola_calcarata" title="Viola calcarata">Viola calcarata</a>, a species highly vulnerable to climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a> has driven a range of species extinct and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">is threatening even more today</a>. Multiple organizations such as <a href="./wiki.php?slug=IUCN" class="mw-redirect" title="IUCN">IUCN</a> and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Royal_Botanic_Gardens,_Kew" title="Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew</a> suggest that around 40% of plant species are threatened with extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-Lughadha2020_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lughadha2020-85">[85]</a></sup> The majority are threatened by <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat loss</a>, but activities such as logging of wild timber trees and collection of medicinal plants, or the introduction of non-native <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>, also play a role.<sup id="cite_ref-BGCI_2023_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BGCI_2023-86">[86]</a></sup>
</p><p>Relatively few plant diversity assessments currently consider <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Lughadha2020_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lughadha2020-85">[85]</a></sup> yet it is <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">starting to impact plants</a> as well. About 3% of flowering plants are very likely to be driven extinct within a century at 2 °C (3.6 °F) of global warming, and 10% at 3.2 °C (5.8 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></sup> In worst-case scenarios, half of all tree species may be driven extinct by climate change over that timeframe.<sup id="cite_ref-Lughadha2020_85-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lughadha2020-85">[85]</a></sup>
</p><p>
Conservation in this context is the attempt to prevent extinction, whether <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a></i> by protecting plants and their habitats in the wild, or <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ex_situ_conservation" title="Ex situ conservation">ex situ</a></i> in <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">seed banks</a> or as living plants.<sup id="cite_ref-BGCI_2023_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BGCI_2023-86">[86]</a></sup> Some 3000 <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Botanic_gardens" class="mw-redirect" title="Botanic gardens">botanic gardens</a> around the world maintain living plants, including over 40% of the species known to be threatened, as an "insurance policy against extinction in the wild."<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup> The <a href="./wiki.php?slug=United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>' <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Global_Strategy_for_Plant_Conservation" title="Global Strategy for Plant Conservation">Global Strategy for Plant Conservation</a> asserts that "without plants, there is no life".<sup id="cite_ref-CBD_2023_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBD_2023-89">[89]</a></sup> It aims to "halt the continuing loss of plant diversity" throughout the world.<sup id="cite_ref-CBD_2023_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBD_2023-89">[89]</a></sup></p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217336898">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;">
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2016-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2016_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2016_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2016_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2016_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2016_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAPG2016">APG 2016</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECronquist1960-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECronquist1960_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCronquist1960">Cronquist 1960</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{color:#f8a397}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite id="CITEREFReveal2011" class="citation web cs1">Reveal, James L. (2011) [or later]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Indices Nominum Supragenericorum Plantarum Vascularium – M"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">the original</a> on 27 August 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indices+Nominum+Supragenericorum+Plantarum+Vascularium+%E2%80%93+M&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Reveal&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.plantsystematics.org%2Freveal%2Fpbio%2Ffam%2FallspgfileM.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETakhtajan1964-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETakhtajan1964_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTakhtajan1964">Takhtajan 1964</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Angiosperms | OpenStax Biology 2e"</a>. <i>courses.lumenlearning.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=courses.lumenlearning.com&rft.atitle=Angiosperms+%7C+OpenStax+Biology+2e&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcourses.lumenlearning.com%2Fsuny-osbiology2e%2Fchapter%2Fangiosperms%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFFriedmanRyerson2009" class="citation journal cs1">Friedman, William E.; Ryerson, Kirsten C. (2009). "Reconstructing the ancestral female gametophyte of angiosperms: Insights from Amborella and other ancient lineages of flowering plants". <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>96</b> (1): 129–143. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.3732/ajb.0800311</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">21628180</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=Reconstructing+the+ancestral+female+gametophyte+of+angiosperms%3A+Insights+from+Amborella+and+other+ancient+lineages+of+flowering+plants&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=129-143&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3732%2Fajb.0800311&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21628180&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=William+E.&rft.au=Ryerson%2C+Kirsten+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFRaven,_Peter_H.Evert,_Ray_F.Eichhorn,_Susan_E.2005" class="citation book cs1">Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray F.; Eichhorn, Susan E. (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"><i>Biology of Plants</i></a></span>. W. H. Freeman. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">376</a>–. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-1007-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-1007-3"><bdi>978-0-7167-1007-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology+of+Plants&rft.pages=376-&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-1007-3&rft.au=Raven%2C+Peter+H.&rft.au=Evert%2C+Ray+F.&rft.au=Eichhorn%2C+Susan+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbiologyofplants00rave_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2012" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, Joseph H. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"The evolution of pollen germination timing in flowering plants: Austrobaileya scandens (Austrobaileyaceae)"</a>. <i>AoB Plants</i>. <b>2012</b>: pls010. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1093/aobpla/pls010</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">3345124</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">22567221</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AoB+Plants&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+pollen+germination+timing+in+flowering+plants%3A+Austrobaileya+scandens+%28Austrobaileyaceae%29&rft.volume=2012&rft.pages=pls010&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3345124%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22567221&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Faobpla%2Fpls010&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Joseph+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3345124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFBarouxSpillaneGrossniklaus2002" class="citation journal cs1">Baroux, C.; Spillane, C.; Grossniklaus, U. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Evolutionary origins of the endosperm in flowering plants"</a>. <i>Genome Biology</i>. <b>3</b> (9) reviews1026.1: reviews1026.1. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1186/gb-2002-3-9-reviews1026</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">139410</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">12225592</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genome+Biology&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+origins+of+the+endosperm+in+flowering+plants&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=9&rft.artnum=reviews1026.1&rft.pages=reviews1026.1&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC139410%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12225592&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fgb-2002-3-9-reviews1026&rft.aulast=Baroux&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Spillane%2C+C.&rft.au=Grossniklaus%2C+U.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC139410&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFGonçalves2021" class="citation journal cs1">Gonçalves, Beatriz (15 December 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Case not closed: the mystery of the origin of the carpel"</a>. <i>EvoDevo</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 14. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1186/s13227-021-00184-z</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">2041-9139</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">8672599</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">34911578</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EvoDevo&rft.atitle=Case+not+closed%3A+the+mystery+of+the+origin+of+the+carpel&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=14&rft.date=2021-12-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8672599%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2041-9139&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34911578&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs13227-021-00184-z&rft.aulast=Gon%C3%A7alves&rft.aufirst=Beatriz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8672599&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFBaas1982" class="citation book cs1">Baas, Pieter (1982). "Systematic, phylogenetic, and ecological wood anatomy — History and perspectives". <i>New Perspectives in Wood Anatomy</i>. Forestry Sciences. Vol. 1. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 23–58. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1007/978-94-017-2418-0_2</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/978-90-481-8269-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-8269-5"><bdi>978-90-481-8269-5</bdi></a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">0924-5480</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Systematic%2C+phylogenetic%2C+and+ecological+wood+anatomy+%E2%80%94+History+and+perspectives&rft.btitle=New+Perspectives+in+Wood+Anatomy&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.series=Forestry+Sciences&rft.pages=23-58&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=1982&rft.issn=0924-5480&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-017-2418-0_2&rft.isbn=978-90-481-8269-5&rft.aulast=Baas&rft.aufirst=Pieter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Menara, yellow meranti, Shorea"</a>. <i>Guinness World Records</i>. 6 January 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 May</span> 2023</span>. <q>yellow meranti (<i>Shorea faguetiana</i>) ... 98.53 m (323 ft 3.1 in) tall ... swamp gum (<i>Eucalyptus regnans</i>) ... In 2014, it had a tape-drop height of 99.82 m (327 ft 5.9 in)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Guinness+World+Records&rft.atitle=Menara%2C+yellow+meranti%2C+Shorea&rft.date=2019-01-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.guinnessworldrecords.com%2Fworld-records%2F572236-tallest-flowering-plant-angiosperm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFLeake1994" class="citation journal cs1">Leake, J.R. (1994). "The biology of myco-heterotrophic ('saprophytic') plants". <i>New Phytologist</i>. <b>127</b> (2): 171–216. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1111/j.1469-8137.1994.tb04272.x</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">33874520</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">85142620</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Phytologist&rft.atitle=The+biology+of+myco-heterotrophic+%28%27saprophytic%27%29+plants&rft.volume=127&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=171-216&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85142620%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33874520&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.1994.tb04272.x&rft.aulast=Leake&rft.aufirst=J.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFWestwoodYoderTimkodePamphilis2010" class="citation journal cs1">Westwood, James H.; Yoder, John I.; Timko, Michael P.; dePamphilis, Claude W. (2010). "The evolution of parasitism in plants". <i>Trends in Plant Science</i>. <b>15</b> (4): 227–235. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1016/j.tplants.2010.01.004</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">1360-1385</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">20153240</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Plant+Science&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+parasitism+in+plants&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=227-235&rft.date=2010&rft.issn=1360-1385&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20153240&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tplants.2010.01.004&rft.aulast=Westwood&rft.aufirst=James+H.&rft.au=Yoder%2C+John+I.&rft.au=Timko%2C+Michael+P.&rft.au=dePamphilis%2C+Claude+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Angiosperms"</a>. University of Nevada, Las Vegas<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Angiosperms&rft.pub=University+of+Nevada%2C+Las+Vegas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flandau.faculty.unlv.edu%2F%2Fangiosperms.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFKendrickOrthSinclairStatton2022" class="citation book cs1">Kendrick, Gary A.; Orth, Robert J.; Sinclair, Elizabeth A.; Statton, John (2022). "Effect of climate change on regeneration of seagrasses from seeds". <i>Plant Regeneration from Seeds</i>. pp. 275–283. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1016/b978-0-12-823731-1.00011-1</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/978-0-1282-3731-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1282-3731-1"><bdi>978-0-1282-3731-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Effect+of+climate+change+on+regeneration+of+seagrasses+from+seeds&rft.btitle=Plant+Regeneration+from+Seeds&rft.pages=275-283&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-823731-1.00011-1&rft.isbn=978-0-1282-3731-1&rft.aulast=Kendrick&rft.aufirst=Gary+A.&rft.au=Orth%2C+Robert+J.&rft.au=Sinclair%2C+Elizabeth+A.&rft.au=Statton%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Karlsson_1992-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Karlsson_1992_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Karlsson_1992_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFKarlssonPate1992" class="citation journal cs1">Karlsson, P. S.; Pate, J. S. (1992). "Contrasting effects of supplementary feeding of insects or mineral nutrients on the growth and nitrogen and phosphorous economy of pygmy species of Drosera". <i>Oecologia</i>. <b>92</b> (1): 8–13. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">1992Oecol..92....8K</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1007/BF00317256</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">28311806</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">13038192</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oecologia&rft.atitle=Contrasting+effects+of+supplementary+feeding+of+insects+or+mineral+nutrients+on+the+growth+and+nitrogen+and+phosphorous+economy+of+pygmy+species+of+Drosera.&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=8-13&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00317256&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13038192%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28311806&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992Oecol..92....8K&rft.aulast=Karlsson&rft.aufirst=P.+S.&rft.au=Pate%2C+J.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Pardoe_1995-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pardoe_1995_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pardoe_1995_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFPardoe1995" class="citation book cs1">Pardoe, H. S. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"><i>Mountain Plants of the British Isles</i></a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Amgueddfa_Cymru_%E2%80%93_Museum_Wales" title="Amgueddfa Cymru – Museum Wales">National Museum of Wales</a>. p. 24. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/978-0-7200-0423-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7200-0423-6"><bdi>978-0-7200-0423-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mountain+Plants+of+the+British+Isles&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=National+Museum+of+Wales&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7200-0423-6&rft.aulast=Pardoe&rft.aufirst=H.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbRHwm1F15S0C%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFHart1977" class="citation journal cs1">Hart, Robin (1977). "Why are Biennials so Few?". <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=The_American_Naturalist" title="The American Naturalist">The American Naturalist</a></i>. <b>111</b> (980): 792–799. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1086/283209</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">2460334</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">85343835</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Naturalist&rft.atitle=Why+are+Biennials+so+Few%3F&rft.volume=111&rft.issue=980&rft.pages=792-799&rft.date=1977&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85343835%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2460334%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F283209&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFRoweSpeck2005" class="citation journal cs1">Rowe, Nick; Speck, Thomas (12 January 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Plant growth forms: an ecological and evolutionary perspective"</a>. <i>New Phytologist</i>. <b>166</b> (1): 61–72. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01309.x</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">0028-646X</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">15760351</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Phytologist&rft.atitle=Plant+growth+forms%3A+an+ecological+and+evolutionary+perspective&rft.volume=166&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=61-72&rft.date=2005-01-12&rft.issn=0028-646X&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15760351&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.2004.01309.x&rft.aulast=Rowe&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft.au=Speck%2C+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1469-8137.2004.01309.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFThorne2002" class="citation journal cs1">Thorne, R.F. (2002). "How many species of seed plants are there?". <i>Taxon</i>. <b>51</b> (3): 511–522. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.2307/1554864</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">1554864</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taxon&rft.atitle=How+many+species+of+seed+plants+are+there%3F&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=511-522&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1554864&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1554864%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Thorne&rft.aufirst=R.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFGoffinetBuck2004" class="citation journal cs1">Goffinet, Bernard; Buck, William R. (2004). "Systematics of the Bryophyta (Mosses): From molecules to a revised classification". <i>Monographs in Systematic Botany</i>. <b>98</b>: 205–239.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Monographs+in+Systematic+Botany&rft.atitle=Systematics+of+the+Bryophyta+%28Mosses%29%3A+From+molecules+to+a+revised+classification&rft.volume=98&rft.pages=205-239&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Goffinet&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft.au=Buck%2C+William+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFRavenEvertEichhorn2005" class="citation book cs1">Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray F.; Eichhorn, Susan E. (2005). <i>Biology of Plants</i> (7th ed.). New York: <a href="./wiki.php?slug=W._H._Freeman_and_Company" title="W. H. Freeman and Company">W. H. Freeman and Company</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/0-7167-1007-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7167-1007-2"><bdi>0-7167-1007-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology+of+Plants&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman+and+Company&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-7167-1007-2&rft.aulast=Raven&rft.aufirst=Peter+H.&rft.au=Evert%2C+Ray+F.&rft.au=Eichhorn%2C+Susan+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2009-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2009_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2009_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2009_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAPG2009">APG 2009</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFStevens2011" class="citation web cs1">Stevens, P. F. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (at Missouri Botanical Garden)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Angiosperm+Phylogeny+Website+%28at+Missouri+Botanical+Garden%29&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Stevens&rft.aufirst=P.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mobot.org%2FMOBOT%2FResearch%2FAPweb%2Fwelcome.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Kew Scientist 30"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. October 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 27 September 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kew+Scientist+30&rft.date=2006-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kew.org%2Fkewscientist%2Fks_30.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBalfourRendle19119-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBalfourRendle19119_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBalfourRendle1911">Balfour & Rendle 1911</a>, p. 9.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1827" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Robert (1827). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Character and description of <i>Kingia</i>, a new genus of plants found on the southwest coast of New Holland: with observations on the structure of its unimpregnated ovulum; and on the female flower of Cycadeae and Coniferae"</a>. In King, Philip Parker (ed.). <i>Narrative of a Survey of the Intertropical and Western Coasts of Australia: Performed Between the Years 1818 and 1822</i>. J. Murray. pp. 534–565. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">185517977</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Character+and+description+of+Kingia%2C+a+new+genus+of+plants+found+on+the+southwest+coast+of+New+Holland%3A+with+observations+on+the+structure+of+its+unimpregnated+ovulum%3B+and+on+the+female+flower+of+Cycadeae+and+Coniferae&rft.btitle=Narrative+of+a+Survey+of+the+Intertropical+and+Western+Coasts+of+Australia%3A+Performed+Between+the+Years+1818+and+1822&rft.pages=534-565&rft.pub=J.+Murray&rft.date=1827&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F185517977&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRjdCAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Buggs_22–36-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Buggs_22–36_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Buggs_22–36_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFBuggs2021" class="citation journal cs1">Buggs, Richard J.A. (January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"The origin of Darwin's "abominable mystery"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>American Journal of Botany</i>. <b>108</b> (1): 22–36. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1002/ajb2.1592</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">33482683</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">231689158</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=The+origin+of+Darwin%27s+%22abominable+mystery%22&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=22-36&rft.date=2021-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A231689158%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33482683&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fajb2.1592&rft.aulast=Buggs&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fajb2.1592&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBalfourRendle191110-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBalfourRendle191110_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBalfourRendle191110_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBalfourRendle191110_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBalfourRendle1911">Balfour & Rendle 1911</a>, p. 10.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaseReveal2009-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaseReveal2009_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChaseReveal2009">Chase & Reveal 2009</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAPG2003-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAPG2003_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAPG2003">APG 2003</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"As easy as APG III – Scientists revise the system of classifying flowering plants"</a> (Press release). The Linnean Society of London. 8 October 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">the original</a> on 26 November 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=As+easy+as+APG+III+%E2%80%93+Scientists+revise+the+system+of+classifying+flowering+plants&rft.pub=The+Linnean+Society+of+London&rft.date=2009-10-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.linnean.org%2Findex.php%3Fid%3D448&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFLeebens-MackBarkerCarpenterDeyholos2019" class="citation journal cs1">Leebens-Mack, M.; Barker, M.; Carpenter, E.; et al. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"One thousand plant transcriptomes and the phylogenomics of green plants"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>574</b> (7780): 679–685. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1038/s41586-019-1693-2</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">6872490</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">31645766</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=One+thousand+plant+transcriptomes+and+the+phylogenomics+of+green+plants&rft.volume=574&rft.issue=7780&rft.pages=679-685&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6872490%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31645766&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-019-1693-2&rft.aulast=Leebens-Mack&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Barker%2C+M.&rft.au=Carpenter%2C+E.&rft.au=Deyholos%2C+M.+K.&rft.au=Gitzendammer%2C+M.+A.&rft.au=Graham%2C+S.W.&rft.au=Grosse%2C+I.&rft.au=Li%2C+Zheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6872490&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFGuo2021" class="citation journal cs1">Guo, Xing (26 November 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Chloranthus genome provides insights into the early diversification of angiosperms"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 6930. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">2021NatCo..12.6930G</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1038/s41467-021-26922-4</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">8626473</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">34836973</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Chloranthus+genome+provides+insights+into+the+early+diversification+of+angiosperms&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=6930&rft.date=2021-11-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8626473%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34836973&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-021-26922-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021NatCo..12.6930G&rft.aulast=Guo&rft.aufirst=Xing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8626473&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Palmer-2004-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Palmer-2004_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palmer-2004_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palmer-2004_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palmer-2004_39-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palmer-2004_39-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFPalmerSoltisChase2004" class="citation journal cs1">Palmer, Jeffrey D.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Chase, Mark W. (October 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"The plant tree of life: an overview and some points of view"</a>. <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=American_Journal_of_Botany" title="American Journal of Botany">American Journal of Botany</a></i>. <b>91</b> (10): 1437–45. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.3732/ajb.91.10.1437</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">21652302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=The+plant+tree+of+life%3A+an+overview+and+some+points+of+view&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1437-45&rft.date=2004-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3732%2Fajb.91.10.1437&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21652302&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+D.&rft.au=Soltis%2C+Douglas+E.&rft.au=Chase%2C+Mark+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3732%252Fajb.91.10.1437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">Figure 2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">Archived</a> 2 February 2011 at the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFChristenhuszFayChase2017" class="citation book cs1">Christenhusz, Maarten J. M.; Fay, Michael F.; Chase, Mark W. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"><i>Plants of the World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Vascular Plants</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 114. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/978-0-226-52292-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-52292-0"><bdi>978-0-226-52292-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plants+of+the+World%3A+An+Illustrated+Encyclopedia+of+Vascular+Plants&rft.pages=114&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-226-52292-0&rft.aulast=Christenhusz&rft.aufirst=Maarten+J.+M.&rft.au=Fay%2C+Michael+F.&rft.au=Chase%2C+Mark+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLLo7DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA114&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFMassoniCouvreurSauquet2015" class="citation journal cs1">Massoni, Julien; Couvreur, Thomas L.P.; Sauquet, Hervé (18 March 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Five major shifts of diversification through the long evolutionary history of Magnoliidae (angiosperms)"</a>. <i>BMC Evolutionary Biology</i>. <b>15</b> (1): 49. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">2015BMCEE..15...49M</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1186/s12862-015-0320-6</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">4377182</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">25887386</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Evolutionary+Biology&rft.atitle=Five+major+shifts+of+diversification+through+the+long+evolutionary+history+of+Magnoliidae+%28angiosperms%29&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=49&rft.date=2015-03-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4377182%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25887386&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12862-015-0320-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015BMCEE..15...49M&rft.aulast=Massoni&rft.aufirst=Julien&rft.au=Couvreur%2C+Thomas+L.P.&rft.au=Sauquet%2C+Herv%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4377182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFHerendeenFriisPedersenCrane2017" class="citation journal cs1">Herendeen, Patrick S.; Friis, Else Marie; Pedersen, Kaj Raunsgaard; Crane, Peter R. (3 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Palaeobotanical redux: revisiting the age of the angiosperms"</a>. <i>Nature Plants</i>. <b>3</b> (3): 17015. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1038/nplants.2017.15</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">2055-0278</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">28260783</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">205458714</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Plants&rft.atitle=Palaeobotanical+redux%3A+revisiting+the+age+of+the+angiosperms&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=17015&rft.date=2017-03-03&rft.issn=2055-0278&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205458714%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28260783&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnplants.2017.15&rft.aulast=Herendeen&rft.aufirst=Patrick+S.&rft.au=Friis%2C+Else+Marie&rft.au=Pedersen%2C+Kaj+Raunsgaard&rft.au=Crane%2C+Peter+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frdcu.be%2Fc0Zhm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFBateman2020" class="citation journal cs1">Bateman, Richard M (1 January 2020). Ort, Donald (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Hunting the Snark: the flawed search for mythical Jurassic angiosperms"</a>. <i>Journal of Experimental Botany</i>. <b>71</b> (1): 22–35. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1093/jxb/erz411</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">0022-0957</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">31538196</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Botany&rft.atitle=Hunting+the+Snark%3A+the+flawed+search+for+mythical+Jurassic+angiosperms&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=22-35&rft.date=2020-01-01&rft.issn=0022-0957&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31538196&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjxb%2Ferz411&rft.aulast=Bateman&rft.aufirst=Richard+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fjxb%2Farticle%2F71%2F1%2F22%2F5571867&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFStullQuParins-FukuchiYang2021" class="citation journal cs1">Stull, Gregory W.; Qu, Xiao-Jian; Parins-Fukuchi, Caroline; et al. (19 July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Gene duplications and phylogenomic conflict underlie major pulses of phenotypic evolution in gymnosperms"</a>. <i>Nature Plants</i>. <b>7</b> (8): 1015–1025. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1038/s41477-021-00964-4</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">34282286</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">236141481</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Plants&rft.atitle=Gene+duplications+and+phylogenomic+conflict+underlie+major+pulses+of+phenotypic+evolution+in+gymnosperms&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1015-1025&rft.date=2021-07-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236141481%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34282286&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41477-021-00964-4&rft.aulast=Stull&rft.aufirst=Gregory+W.&rft.au=Qu%2C+Xiao-Jian&rft.au=Parins-Fukuchi%2C+Caroline&rft.au=Yang%2C+Ying-Ying&rft.au=Yang%2C+Jun-Bo&rft.au=Yang%2C+Zhi-Yun&rft.au=Hu%2C+Yi&rft.au=Ma%2C+Hong&rft.au=Soltis%2C+Pamela+S.&rft.au=Soltis%2C+Douglas+E.&rft.au=Li%2C+De-Zhu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41477-021-00964-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFSauquetRamírez-BarahonaMagallón2022" class="citation journal cs1">Sauquet, Hervé; Ramírez-Barahona, Santiago; Magallón, Susana (24 June 2022). Melzer, Rainer (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"What is the age of flowering plants?"</a>. <i>Journal of Experimental Botany</i>. <b>73</b> (12): 3840–3853. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1093/jxb/erac130</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">0022-0957</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">35438718</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Botany&rft.atitle=What+is+the+age+of+flowering+plants%3F&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=3840-3853&rft.date=2022-06-24&rft.issn=0022-0957&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35438718&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjxb%2Ferac130&rft.aulast=Sauquet&rft.aufirst=Herv%C3%A9&rft.au=Ram%C3%ADrez-Barahona%2C+Santiago&rft.au=Magall%C3%B3n%2C+Susana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fjxb%2Farticle%2F73%2F12%2F3840%2F6570702&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20107-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_CraeneP.20107_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_CraeneP.2010">De Craene & P. 2010</a>, p. 7.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016225-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTED._Mauseth2016225_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFD._Mauseth2016">D. Mauseth 2016</a>, p. 225.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFBatygina2019" class="citation book cs1">Batygina, T.B. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"><i>Embryology of Flowering Plants: Terminology and Concepts, Vol. 3: Reproductive Systems</i></a>. CRC Press. p. 43. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-4436-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-4436-6"><bdi>978-1-4398-4436-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Embryology+of+Flowering+Plants%3A+Terminology+and+Concepts%2C+Vol.+3%3A+Reproductive+Systems&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-4398-4436-6&rft.aulast=Batygina&rft.aufirst=T.B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4VOWDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dmonoecy%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFBortiriHake2007" class="citation journal cs1">Bortiri, E.; Hake, S. (13 January 2007). "Flowering and determinacy in maize". <i>Journal of Experimental Botany</i>. <b>58</b> (5). Oxford University Press (OUP): 909–916. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1093/jxb/erm015</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">0022-0957</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">17337752</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Botany&rft.atitle=Flowering+and+determinacy+in+maize&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=909-916&rft.date=2007-01-13&rft.issn=0022-0957&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17337752&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjxb%2Ferm015&rft.aulast=Bortiri&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Hake%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Lughadha2020-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lughadha2020_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lughadha2020_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lughadha2020_85-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFLughadhaBachmanLeãoForest2020" class="citation journal cs1">Lughadha, Eimear Nic; Bachman, Steven P.; Leão, Tarciso C. C.; Forest, Félix; Halley, John M.; Moat, Justin; Acedo, Carmen; Bacon, Karen L.; Brewer, Ryan F. A.; Gâteblé, Gildas; Gonçalves, Susana C.; Govaerts, Rafaël; Hollingsworth, Peter M.; Krisai-Greilhuber, Irmgard; de Lirio, Elton J.; Moore, Paloma G. P.; Negrão, Raquel; Onana, Jean Michel; Rajaovelona, Landy R.; Razanajatovo, Henintsoa; Reich, Peter B.; Richards, Sophie L.; Rivers, Malin C.; Cooper, Amanda; Iganci, João; Lewis, Gwilym P.; Smidt, Eric C.; Antonelli, Alexandre; Mueller, Gregory M.; Walker, Barnaby E. (29 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Extinction risk and threats to plants and fungi"</a>. <i>Plants People Planet</i>. <b>2</b> (5): 389–408. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1002/ppp3.10146</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10316/101227</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">225274409</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Plants+People+Planet&rft.atitle=Extinction+risk+and+threats+to+plants+and+fungi&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=389-408&rft.date=2020-09-29&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10316%2F101227&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225274409%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fppp3.10146&rft.aulast=Lughadha&rft.aufirst=Eimear+Nic&rft.au=Bachman%2C+Steven+P.&rft.au=Le%C3%A3o%2C+Tarciso+C.+C.&rft.au=Forest%2C+F%C3%A9lix&rft.au=Halley%2C+John+M.&rft.au=Moat%2C+Justin&rft.au=Acedo%2C+Carmen&rft.au=Bacon%2C+Karen+L.&rft.au=Brewer%2C+Ryan+F.+A.&rft.au=G%C3%A2tebl%C3%A9%2C+Gildas&rft.au=Gon%C3%A7alves%2C+Susana+C.&rft.au=Govaerts%2C+Rafa%C3%ABl&rft.au=Hollingsworth%2C+Peter+M.&rft.au=Krisai-Greilhuber%2C+Irmgard&rft.au=de+Lirio%2C+Elton+J.&rft.au=Moore%2C+Paloma+G.+P.&rft.au=Negr%C3%A3o%2C+Raquel&rft.au=Onana%2C+Jean+Michel&rft.au=Rajaovelona%2C+Landy+R.&rft.au=Razanajatovo%2C+Henintsoa&rft.au=Reich%2C+Peter+B.&rft.au=Richards%2C+Sophie+L.&rft.au=Rivers%2C+Malin+C.&rft.au=Cooper%2C+Amanda&rft.au=Iganci%2C+Jo%C3%A3o&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Gwilym+P.&rft.au=Smidt%2C+Eric+C.&rft.au=Antonelli%2C+Alexandre&rft.au=Mueller%2C+Gregory+M.&rft.au=Walker%2C+Barnaby+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fppp3.10146&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-BGCI_2023-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BGCI_2023_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BGCI_2023_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Botanic Gardens and Plant Conservation"</a>. <i>Botanic Gardens Conservation International</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Botanic+Gardens+Conservation+International&rft.atitle=Botanic+Gardens+and+Plant+Conservation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bgci.org%2Fabout%2Fbotanic-gardens-and-plant-conservation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat et al. (2022) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">Chapter 2: Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services</a> in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Terrestrial and Freshwater Ecosystems and Their Services". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"><i>Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. 2023. pp. 197–378. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1017/9781009325844.004</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/978-1-009-32584-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-32584-4"><bdi>978-1-009-32584-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Terrestrial+and+Freshwater+Ecosystems+and+Their+Services&rft.btitle=Climate+Change+2022+%E2%80%93+Impacts%2C+Adaptation+and+Vulnerability&rft.pages=197-378&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781009325844.004&rft.isbn=978-1-009-32584-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipcc.ch%2Freport%2Far6%2Fwg2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Plant Conservation Around the World"</a>. <i>Cambridge University Botanic Garden</i>. 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+University+Botanic+Garden&rft.atitle=Plant+Conservation+Around+the+World&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.botanic.cam.ac.uk%2Ffestival-of-plants-2020%2Ffop-day3-conservation%2Fplant-conservation-around-the-world%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-CBD_2023-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CBD_2023_89-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CBD_2023_89-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Updated Global Strategy for Plant Conservation 2011-2020"</a>. <i>Convention on Biological Diversity</i>. 3 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 July</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Convention+on+Biological+Diversity&rft.atitle=Updated+Global+Strategy+for+Plant+Conservation+2011-2020&rft.date=2023-07-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbd.int%2Fgspc%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span id="Articles.2C_books_and_chapters"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Articles,_books_and_chapters">Articles, books and chapters</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Articles, books and chapters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em">
<ul><li><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFBalfourRendle1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Isaac_Bayley_Balfour" title="Isaac Bayley Balfour">Balfour, Isaac Bayley</a>; <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Alfred_Barton_Rendle" title="Alfred Barton Rendle">Rendle, Alfred Barton</a> (1911). "<a class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Angiosperms">Angiosperms</a>". In <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 9–14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Angiosperms&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=9-14&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Balfour&rft.aufirst=Isaac+Bayley&rft.au=Rendle%2C+Alfred+Barton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFAPG2003" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Angiosperm_Phylogeny_Group" title="Angiosperm Phylogeny Group">APG</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II"</a>. <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Botanical_Journal_of_the_Linnean_Society" title="Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society">Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society</a></i>. <b>141</b> (4): 399–436. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Botanical+Journal+of+the+Linnean+Society&rft.atitle=An+update+of+the+Angiosperm+Phylogeny+Group+classification+for+the+orders+and+families+of+flowering+plants%3A+APG+II&rft.volume=141&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=399-436&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x&rft.au=APG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1046%252Fj.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFAPG2009" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Angiosperm_Phylogeny_Group" title="Angiosperm Phylogeny Group">APG</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III"</a>. <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Botanical_Journal_of_the_Linnean_Society" title="Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society">Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society</a></i>. <b>161</b> (2): 105–121. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10654/18083</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Botanical+Journal+of+the+Linnean+Society&rft.atitle=An+update+of+the+Angiosperm+Phylogeny+Group+classification+for+the+orders+and+families+of+flowering+plants%3A+APG+III&rft.volume=161&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=105-121&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10654%2F18083&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.2009.00996.x&rft.au=APG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1095-8339.2009.00996.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFAPG2016" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Angiosperm_Phylogeny_Group" title="Angiosperm Phylogeny Group">APG</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV"</a>. <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Botanical_Journal_of_the_Linnean_Society" title="Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society">Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society</a></i>. <b>181</b> (1): 1–20. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1111/boj.12385</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Botanical+Journal+of+the+Linnean+Society&rft.atitle=An+update+of+the+Angiosperm+Phylogeny+Group+classification+for+the+orders+and+families+of+flowering+plants%3A+APG+IV&rft.volume=181&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-20&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fboj.12385&rft.au=APG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fboj.12385&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Becker, Kenneth M. (February 1973). "A Comparison of Angiosperm Classification Systems". <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Taxon_(journal)" title="Taxon (journal)">Taxon</a></i>. <b>22</b> (1): 19–50. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.2307/1218032</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">1218032</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taxon&rft.atitle=A+Comparison+of+Angiosperm+Classification+Systems&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=19-50&rft.date=1973-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1218032&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1218032%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation book cs1">Bell, Adrian D. (2008) [1991]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"><i>Plant Form. An Illustrated Guide to Flowering Plant Morphology</i></a>. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/978-0-88192-850-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88192-850-1"><bdi>978-0-88192-850-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+Form.+An+Illustrated+Guide+to+Flowering+Plant+Morphology&rft.place=Portland%2C+Oregon&rft.pub=Timber+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-88192-850-1&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Adrian+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSM3khPHXhKEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">1st edition published by Oxford University Press in 1991</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/978-0-19854-219-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19854-219-3">978-0-19854-219-3</a></li></ul></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Bell, C.D.; <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Douglas_Soltis" class="mw-redirect" title="Douglas Soltis">Soltis, D.E.</a>; <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pamela_S._Soltis" title="Pamela S. Soltis">Soltis, P.S.</a> (2010). "The Age and Diversification of the Angiosperms Revisited". <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=American_Journal_of_Botany" title="American Journal of Botany">American Journal of Botany</a></i>. <b>97</b> (8): 1296–1303. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.3732/ajb.0900346</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">21616882</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">207613985</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=The+Age+and+Diversification+of+the+Angiosperms+Revisited&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1296-1303&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207613985%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21616882&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3732%2Fajb.0900346&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=C.D.&rft.au=Soltis%2C+D.E.&rft.au=Soltis%2C+P.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFChaseReveal2009" class="citation journal cs1">Chase, Mark W.; Reveal, James L. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III"</a>. <i>Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society</i>. <b>161</b> (2): 122–127. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Botanical+Journal+of+the+Linnean+Society&rft.atitle=A+phylogenetic+classification+of+the+land+plants+to+accompany+APG+III&rft.volume=161&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=122-127&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.2009.01002.x&rft.aulast=Chase&rft.aufirst=Mark+W.&rft.au=Reveal%2C+James+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1095-8339.2009.01002.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFDe_CraeneP.2010" class="citation book cs1">De Craene, Ronse; P., Louis (2010). <i>Floral Diagrams</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1017/cbo9780511806711</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/978-0-511-80671-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-80671-1"><bdi>978-0-511-80671-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Floral+Diagrams&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511806711&rft.isbn=978-0-511-80671-1&rft.aulast=De+Craene&rft.aufirst=Ronse&rft.au=P.%2C+Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Cromie, William J. (December 16, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Oldest Known Flowering Plants Identified By Genes"</a>. Harvard University Gazette.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFCronquist1960" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Arthur_Cronquist" title="Arthur Cronquist">Cronquist, Arthur</a> (October 1960). "The divisions and classes of plants". <i>The Botanical Review</i>. <b>26</b> (4): 425–482. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">1960BotRv..26..425C</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1007/BF02940572</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">43144314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Botanical+Review&rft.atitle=The+divisions+and+classes+of+plants&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=425-482&rft.date=1960-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43144314%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02940572&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1960BotRv..26..425C&rft.aulast=Cronquist&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Arthur_Cronquist" title="Arthur Cronquist">Cronquist, Arthur</a> (1981). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"><i>An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants</i></a></span>. New York: Columbia Univ. Press. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/978-0-231-03880-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-03880-5"><bdi>978-0-231-03880-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Integrated+System+of+Classification+of+Flowering+Plants&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+Univ.+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-231-03880-5&rft.aulast=Cronquist&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintegratedsystem0000cron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rolf_Dahlgren" title="Rolf Dahlgren">Dahlgren, R. M. T.</a> (February 1980). "A revised system of classification of the angiosperms". <i>Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society</i>. <b>80</b> (2): 91–124. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1111/j.1095-8339.1980.tb01661.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Botanical+Journal+of+the+Linnean+Society&rft.atitle=A+revised+system+of+classification+of+the+angiosperms&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=91-124&rft.date=1980-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.1980.tb01661.x&rft.aulast=Dahlgren&rft.aufirst=R.+M.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rolf_Dahlgren" title="Rolf Dahlgren">Dahlgren, Rolf</a> (February 1983). "General aspects of angiosperm evolution and macrosystematics". <i>Nordic Journal of Botany</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 119–149. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1111/j.1756-1051.1983.tb01448.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nordic+Journal+of+Botany&rft.atitle=General+aspects+of+angiosperm+evolution+and+macrosystematics&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=119-149&rft.date=1983-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1756-1051.1983.tb01448.x&rft.aulast=Dahlgren&rft.aufirst=Rolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Dilcher, D. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Toward a new synthesis: Major evolutionary trends in the angiosperm fossil record"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>97</b> (13): 7030–7036. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">2000PNAS...97.7030D</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1073/pnas.97.13.7030</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">34380</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10860967</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Toward+a+new+synthesis%3A+Major+evolutionary+trends+in+the+angiosperm+fossil+record&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=7030-7036&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC34380%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10860967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.97.13.7030&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PNAS...97.7030D&rft.aulast=Dilcher&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC34380&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation book cs1">Heywood, V. H.; Brummitt, R. K.; Culham, A.; Seberg, O. (2007). <i>Flowering Plant Families of the World</i>. Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada: Firefly Books. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/978-1-55407-206-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55407-206-4"><bdi>978-1-55407-206-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Flowering+Plant+Families+of+the+World&rft.place=Richmond+Hill%2C+Ontario%2C+Canada&rft.pub=Firefly+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-55407-206-4&rft.aulast=Heywood&rft.aufirst=V.+H.&rft.au=Brummitt%2C+R.+K.&rft.au=Culham%2C+A.&rft.au=Seberg%2C+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation book cs1">Lersten, Nels R. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"><i>Flowering plant embryology with emphasis on economic species</i></a>. Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Pub. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/978-0-470-75267-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-75267-8"><bdi>978-0-470-75267-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Flowering+plant+embryology+with+emphasis+on+economic+species&rft.place=Ames%2C+Iowa&rft.pub=Blackwell+Pub.&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-470-75267-8&rft.aulast=Lersten&rft.aufirst=Nels+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2YbwF7tH6dUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFD._Mauseth2016" class="citation book cs1">D. Mauseth, James (2016). <i>Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology</i> (6th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/978-1-284-07753-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-284-07753-7"><bdi>978-1-284-07753-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Botany%3A+An+Introduction+to+Plant+Biology&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-284-07753-7&rft.aulast=D.+Mauseth&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
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<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation book cs1">Sattler, R. (1973). <i>Organogenesis of Flowers. A Photographic Text-Atlas</i>. University of Toronto Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Organogenesis+of+Flowers.+A+Photographic+Text-Atlas&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Sattler&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation book cs1">Simpson, Michael G. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"><i>Plant Systematics</i></a> (2nd ed.). <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:BookSources/978-0-08-092208-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-092208-9"><bdi>978-0-08-092208-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+Systematics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-08-092208-9&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Michael+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ddj8KRImgyf4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pamela_Soltis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pamela Soltis">Soltis, Pamela S</a>; <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Douglas_Soltis" class="mw-redirect" title="Douglas Soltis">Soltis, Douglas E</a> (April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Ancient WGD events as drivers of key innovations in angiosperms"</a>. <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Current_Opinion_in_Plant_Biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Current Opinion in Plant Biology">Current Opinion in Plant Biology</a></i>. <b>30</b>: 159–165. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">2016COPB...30..159S</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1016/j.pbi.2016.03.015</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">27064530</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Plant+Biology&rft.atitle=Ancient+WGD+events+as+drivers+of+key+innovations+in+angiosperms&rft.volume=30&rft.pages=159-165&rft.date=2016-04&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27064530&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.pbi.2016.03.015&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016COPB...30..159S&rft.aulast=Soltis&rft.aufirst=Pamela+S&rft.au=Soltis%2C+Douglas+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.pbi.2016.03.015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFTakhtajan1964" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Takhtajan" class="mw-redirect" title="Takhtajan">Takhtajan, A.</a> (June 1964). "The Taxa of the Higher Plants above the Rank of Order". <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Taxon_(journal)" title="Taxon (journal)">Taxon</a></i>. <b>13</b> (5): 160–164. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.2307/1216134</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">1216134</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taxon&rft.atitle=The+Taxa+of+the+Higher+Plants+above+the+Rank+of+Order&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=160-164&rft.date=1964-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1216134&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1216134%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Takhtajan&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite id="CITEREFTakhtajan1980" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Takhtajan" class="mw-redirect" title="Takhtajan">Takhtajan, A.</a> (July–September 1980). "Outline of the Classification of Flowering Plants (Magnoliophyta)". <i>Botanical Review</i>. <b>46</b> (3): 225–359. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">1980BotRv..46..225T</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1007/bf02861558</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">4353970</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">30764910</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Botanical+Review&rft.atitle=Outline+of+the+Classification+of+Flowering+Plants+%28Magnoliophyta%29&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=225-359&rft.date=1980-07%2F1980-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf02861558&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30764910%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4353970%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980BotRv..46..225T&rft.aulast=Takhtajan&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Zeng, Liping; Zhang, Qiang; Sun, Renran; Kong, Hongzhi; Zhang, Ning; Ma, Hong (24 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Resolution of deep angiosperm phylogeny using conserved nuclear genes and estimates of early divergence times"</a>. <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nature_Communications" title="Nature Communications">Nature Communications</a></i>. <b>5</b> (4956): 4956. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">2014NatCo...5.4956Z</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text">10.1038/ncomms5956</a>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">4200517</a></span>. <a href="./wiki.php?slug=PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">25249442</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Resolution+of+deep+angiosperm+phylogeny+using+conserved+nuclear+genes+and+estimates+of+early+divergence+times&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4956&rft.pages=4956&rft.date=2014-09-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4200517%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25249442&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fncomms5956&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014NatCo...5.4956Z&rft.aulast=Zeng&rft.aufirst=Liping&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Qiang&rft.au=Sun%2C+Renran&rft.au=Kong%2C+Hongzhi&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Ning&rft.au=Ma%2C+Hong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4200517&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Websites">Websites</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a title="Edit section: Websites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em">
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation web cs1">Cole, Theodor C.H.; Hilger, Harmut H.; Stevens, Peter F. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Angiosperm Phylogeny Poster –  Flowering Plant Systematics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Angiosperm+Phylogeny+Poster+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3B+Flowering+Plant+Systematics&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Cole&rft.aufirst=Theodor+C.H.&rft.au=Hilger%2C+Harmut+H.&rft.au=Stevens%2C+Peter+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biologie.fu-berlin.de%2Fsysbot%2Fposter%2Fposter1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><cite class="citation web cs1">Watson, L.; Dallwitz, M.J. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"The Families of Flowering Plants: Descriptions, Illustrations, Identification, and Information Retrieval"</a>. 14 December 2000. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text">the original</a> on 2 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Families+of+Flowering+Plants%3A+Descriptions%2C+Illustrations%2C+Identification%2C+and+Information+Retrieval&rft.series=14+December+2000&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Dallwitz%2C+M.J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biologie.uni-hamburg.de%2Fb-online%2Fdelta%2Fangio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFlowering+plant" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">"Flowering plant"</a> at the <i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">Encyclopedia of Life</a></i></li></ul>
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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="sensu lato; in the broad sense"><i>s.l.</i></span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div><div class="hlist">
<dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">Domain</a></span></dt>
<dd><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Archaea_classification" title="Template:Archaea classification">Archaea</a></dd>
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<dd><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Eukaryota" title="Template:Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a></dd>
<dt><span class="nobold">(major groups</span></dt>
<dd><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Excavata" title="Template:Excavata">Excavata</a></dd>
<dd><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a>
<dl><dd><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Hacrobia" title="Template:Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a></dd>
<dd><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Rhizaria" title="Template:Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></dd>
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<dd><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Amorphea" title="Amorphea">Amorphea</a>
<dl><dd><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Amoebozoa" title="Template:Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></dd>
<dd><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Opisthokont_protists" title="Template:Opisthokont protists">Opisthokonta</a>
<dl><dd><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Animalia" title="Template:Animalia">Animals</a></dd>
<dd><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Fungi_classification" title="Template:Fungi classification">Fungi</a>)</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl>
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<ul><li><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Picomonas" class="mw-redirect" title="Picomonas">Picomonas</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rhodelphis" title="Rhodelphis">Rhodelphidia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rhodelphis" title="Rhodelphis">Rhodelphis</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Red_algae" title="Red algae">Rhodophyta</a><br /><span class="nobold">(red algae)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cyanidiophyceae" title="Cyanidiophyceae">Cyanidiophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Porphyridiophyceae" title="Porphyridiophyceae">Porphyridiophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Stylonematophyceae" title="Stylonematophyceae">Stylonematophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Compsopogonophyceae" title="Compsopogonophyceae">Compsopogonophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rhodellophyceae" title="Rhodellophyceae">Rhodellophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bangiophyceae" title="Bangiophyceae">Bangiophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Florideophyceae" title="Florideophyceae">Florideophyceae</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">Glaucophyta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">Glaucocystophyceae</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><i>incertae sedis</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Algospongia" title="Algospongia">Algospongia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Viridiplantae" title="Viridiplantae">Viridiplantae</a> <br /> <span class="nobold">or <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant" title="Plant">Plantae <span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="sensu stricto; in the strict sense"><i>s.s.</i></span></a><br />(<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a> &<br /> land plants)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Prasinodermophyta" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Prasinodermophyta" title="Prasinodermophyta">Prasinodermophyta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Prasinoderma" title="Prasinoderma">Prasinodermophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Palmophyllophyceae" title="Palmophyllophyceae">Palmophyllophyceae</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;">Prasinophytina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Mamiellophyceae" title="Mamiellophyceae">Mamiellophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pyramimonadophyceae" title="Pyramimonadophyceae">Pyramimonadophyceae</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;">Chlorophytina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nephroselmidaceae" title="Nephroselmidaceae">Nephroselmidophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Picocystis" title="Picocystis">Picocystophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chloropicophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Chloropicophyceae">Chloropicophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pedinophyceae" title="Pedinophyceae">Pedinophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chlorodendrales" title="Chlorodendrales">Chlorodendrophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=UTC_clade" title="UTC clade">UTC clade</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ulvophyceae" title="Ulvophyceae">Ulvophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Trebouxiophyceae" title="Trebouxiophyceae">Trebouxiophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chlorophyceae" title="Chlorophyceae">Chlorophyceae</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin:-29px;display: inline-block;-webkit-transform: rotate(270deg);-moz-transform: rotate(270deg);-ms-transform: rotate(270deg);-o-transform: rotate(270deg);transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Streptophyta" title="Streptophyta">Streptophyta</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Mesostigmatophyceae" title="Mesostigmatophyceae">Mesostigmatophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chlorokybophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlorokybophyceae">Chlorokybophyceae</a></li>
<li><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Spirotaenia" title="Spirotaenia">Spirotaenia</a></i></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Klebsormidiophyceae" class="mw-redirect" title="Klebsormidiophyceae">Klebsormidiophyceae</a></li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Phragmoplastophyta" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Phragmoplastophyta" title="Phragmoplastophyta">Phragmoplastophyta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Charophyceae" title="Charophyceae">Charophyceae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Coleochaetophyceae" title="Coleochaetophyceae">Coleochaetophyceae</a></li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;">Anydrophyta</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Zygnematophyceae" title="Zygnematophyceae">Zygnematophyceae</a></li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Embryophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryophyta">Embryophyta</a><br /><span class="nobold">(land plants)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>(see below↓)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div id="Embryophytes_or_Plantae_sensu_strictissimo" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">Embryophytes</a> or <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant" title="Plant">Plantae <span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="in the strictest sense"><i>sensu strictissimo</i></span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bryophytes" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -25px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophytes</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">Marchantiophyta</a><br /><span class="nobold">(liverworts)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Haplomitriopsida" title="Haplomitriopsida">Haplomitriopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Marchantiopsida" title="Marchantiopsida">Marchantiopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Jungermanniopsida" title="Jungermanniopsida">Jungermanniopsida</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Hornwort" title="Hornwort">Anthocerotophyta</a><br /><span class="nobold">(hornworts)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Leiosporoceros" title="Leiosporoceros">Leiosporocerotopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Hornwort" title="Hornwort">Anthocerotopsida</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Moss" title="Moss">Bryophyta</a><br /><span class="nobold">(mosses)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Takakia" title="Takakia">Takakiopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sphagnopsida" title="Sphagnopsida">Sphagnopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Andreaeobryum" title="Andreaeobryum">Andreaeobryopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Andreaeaceae" title="Andreaeaceae">Andreaeopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Oedipodium" title="Oedipodium">Oedipodiopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Tetraphidaceae" title="Tetraphidaceae">Tetraphidopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Polytrichaceae" title="Polytrichaceae">Polytrichopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bryopsida" title="Bryopsida">Bryopsida</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -55px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Polysporangiophyte" title="Polysporangiophyte">Polysporangiophytes</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="†Protracheophytes*" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span class="nobold">†</span>Protracheophytes*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Horneophytopsida" title="Horneophytopsida">Horneophytopsida</a></li>
<li>†<i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Aglaophyton" title="Aglaophyton">Aglaophyton</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -25px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Tracheophytes</a><br /><span class="nobold">(vascular plants)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="†Paratracheophytes*" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span class="nobold">†</span>Paratracheophytes*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>†<a class="new" title="Cooksoniopsida (page does not exist)">Cooksoniopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rhyniophyte" title="Rhyniophyte">Rhyniopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a class="new" title="Renaliales (page does not exist)">Renaliales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -40px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);">Eutracheophytes</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Lycophytes" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophytes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Barinophyte" title="Barinophyte">Barinophytopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Zosterophyll" title="Zosterophyll">Zosterophyllopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Lycopodiopsida" title="Lycopodiopsida">Lycopodiopsida</a> (<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Lycopodiaceae" title="Lycopodiaceae">clubmosses</a>, <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Selaginella" title="Selaginella">spikemosses</a> & <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Isoetes" title="Isoetes">quillworts</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -35px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Euphyllophyte" title="Euphyllophyte">Euphyllophytes</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Eophyllophyton" title="Eophyllophyton">Eophyllophytopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Trimerophytopsida" title="Trimerophytopsida">Trimerophytopsida</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Moniliformopses" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;">Moniliformopses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>†<a class="new" title="Ibykales (page does not exist)">Ibykales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cladoxylopsida" title="Cladoxylopsida">Cladoxylopsida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fern" title="Fern">Polypodiopsida</a> (ferns and <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Equisetum" title="Equisetum">horsetails</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -30px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);">Lignophytes</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="†Progymnosperms*" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span class="nobold">†</span><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Progymnosperm" title="Progymnosperm">Progymnosperms</a>*</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>†<a class="new" title="Noeggerathiopsida (page does not exist)">Noeggerathiopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a class="new" title="Aneurophytopsida (page does not exist)">Aneurophytopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a class="new" title="Archaeopteridopsida (page does not exist)">Archaeopteridopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a class="new" title="Protopityales (page does not exist)">Protopityales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span style="margin: -25px; display: inline-block; -webkit-transform: rotate(270deg); -moz-transform: rotate(270deg); -ms-transform: rotate(270deg); -o-transform: rotate(270deg); transform: rotate(270deg);"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a><br /><span class="nobold">(seed plants)</span></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><span class="nobold">†</span><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pteridospermatophyta" title="Pteridospermatophyta">Pteridosperms</a><span class="nobold">*</span><br /><span class="nobold">(seed ferns)<br />and other extinct<br /> seed plant groups</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bennettitales" title="Bennettitales">Bennettitales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Calamopityales" class="mw-redirect" title="Calamopityales">Calamopityales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Callistophytales" title="Callistophytales">Callistophytales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Caytoniales" title="Caytoniales">Caytoniales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cordaitales" title="Cordaitales">Cordaitales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Corystospermaceae" title="Corystospermaceae">Corystospermales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Czekanowskiales" title="Czekanowskiales">Czekanowskiales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gigantopteridales" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigantopteridales">Gigantopteridales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Glossopteridales" title="Glossopteridales">Glossopteridales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Lyginopteridales" title="Lyginopteridales">Lyginopteridopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Medullosales" title="Medullosales">Medullosales</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Peltaspermales" title="Peltaspermales">Peltaspermopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pentoxylales" title="Pentoxylales">Pentoxylopsida</a></li>
<li>†<a class="new" title="Petriellales (page does not exist)">Petriellales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Acrogymnospermae</a><br /><span class="nobold">(living gymnosperms)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cycad" title="Cycad">Cycadopsida (cycads)</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ginkgoales" title="Ginkgoales">Ginkgoales (<i>Ginkgo</i>)</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Conifer" title="Conifer">Pinopsida (conifers)</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetopsida</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #D4EED4;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Angiospermae</a><br /><span class="nobold">(flowering plants)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Basal_angiosperms" title="Basal angiosperms">Basal angiosperms</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Mesangiospermae" title="Mesangiospermae">Core angiosperms</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Magnoliids" title="Magnoliids">Magnoliids</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Monocotyledon" title="Monocotyledon">Monocots</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Eudicots" title="Eudicots">Eudicots</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div>
<ul><li>*<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</a> groups</li>
<li>† = <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_plant_orders" title="List of plant orders">List of plant orders</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant#Current_definitions_of_Plantae" title="Plant">Current definitions of Plantae</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Botany" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;;background: #90EE90;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Botany" title="Template:Botany"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template_talk:Botany" title="Template talk:Botany"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:EditPage/Template:Botany" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Botany"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Botany" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Outline_of_botany" title="Outline of botany">Outline</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Angiosperm</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Root" title="Root">Root</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a>
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Category:Botany" title="Category:Botany">Category</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Orders_of_flowering_plants_(APG_IV)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background:#C3EEC3;;background:#90EE90;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Angiosperm_orders" title="Template:Angiosperm orders"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template_talk:Angiosperm_orders" title="Template talk:Angiosperm orders"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:EditPage/Template:Angiosperm_orders" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Angiosperm orders"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Orders_of_flowering_plants_(APG_IV)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Orders of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">flowering plants</a> (<a href="./wiki.php?slug=APG_IV_system" title="APG IV system">APG IV</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#C3EEC3;"><div>
<ul><li>Supergroup <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Plant_classification" title="Template:Plant classification">Plant</a>:</li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Bryophyta" title="Template:Bryophyta">Bryophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Marchantiophyta" title="Template:Marchantiophyta">Marchantiophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Fern_classification" title="Template:Fern classification">Polypodiophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Acrogymnospermae_classification" title="Template:Acrogymnospermae classification">Acrogymnospermae</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Angiosperm_families" title="Template:Angiosperm families">Angiospermae</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3;;width:1%;background:#D4EED4;"><div style="position:absolute;transform: translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Angiosperms</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Amborella" title="Amborella">Amborellales</a>¹</li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nymphaeales" title="Nymphaeales">Nymphaeales</a>¹</li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Austrobaileyales" title="Austrobaileyales">Austrobaileyales</a>¹</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D4EED4;"><div style="position:absolute;transform: translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Mesangiospermae" title="Mesangiospermae">Mesangiosperms</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chloranthaceae" title="Chloranthaceae">Chloranthales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ceratophyllaceae" title="Ceratophyllaceae">Ceratophyllales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Magnoliids" title="Magnoliids">Magnoliids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Canellales" title="Canellales">Canellales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Piperales" title="Piperales">Piperales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Laurales" title="Laurales">Laurales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Magnoliales" title="Magnoliales">Magnoliales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Monocotyledon" title="Monocotyledon">Monocots</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Acorus" title="Acorus">Acorales</a>²</li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Alismatales" title="Alismatales">Alismatales</a>²</li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Petrosaviaceae" title="Petrosaviaceae">Petrosaviales</a>³</li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Dioscoreales" title="Dioscoreales">Dioscoreales</a>³</li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pandanales" title="Pandanales">Pandanales</a>³</li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Liliales" title="Liliales">Liliales</a>³</li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Asparagales" title="Asparagales">Asparagales</a>³</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Commelinids" title="Commelinids">Commelinids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Arecales" title="Arecales">Arecales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Poales" title="Poales">Poales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Commelinales" title="Commelinales">Commelinales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Zingiberales" title="Zingiberales">Zingiberales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D4EED4;"><div style="position:absolute;transform: translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Eudicots" title="Eudicots">Eudicots</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ranunculales" title="Ranunculales">Ranunculales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Proteales" title="Proteales">Proteales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Trochodendraceae" title="Trochodendraceae">Trochodendrales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Buxales" title="Buxales">Buxales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D4EED4;"><div style="position:absolute;transform: translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Core_eudicots" class="mw-redirect" title="Core eudicots">Core eudicots</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gunnerales" title="Gunnerales">Gunnerales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Dilleniales" title="Dilleniales">Dilleniales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D4EED4;"><div style="position:absolute;transform: translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Superrosids" title="Superrosids">Superrosids</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Saxifragales" title="Saxifragales">Saxifragales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rosids" title="Rosids">Rosids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Vitaceae" title="Vitaceae">Vitales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fabids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabids">Fabids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Zygophyllales" title="Zygophyllales">Zygophyllales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Celastrales" title="Celastrales">Celastrales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Malpighiales" title="Malpighiales">Malpighiales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Oxalidales" title="Oxalidales">Oxalidales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fabales" title="Fabales">Fabales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rosales" title="Rosales">Rosales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cucurbitales" title="Cucurbitales">Cucurbitales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fagales" title="Fagales">Fagales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Malvids" class="mw-redirect" title="Malvids">Malvids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Geraniales" title="Geraniales">Geraniales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Myrtales" title="Myrtales">Myrtales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Crossosomatales" title="Crossosomatales">Crossosomatales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Picramniaceae" title="Picramniaceae">Picramniales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sapindales" title="Sapindales">Sapindales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Huerteales" title="Huerteales">Huerteales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Brassicales" title="Brassicales">Brassicales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Malvales" title="Malvales">Malvales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D4EED4;"><div style="position:absolute;transform: translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Superasterids" title="Superasterids">Superasterids</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Berberidopsidales" title="Berberidopsidales">Berberidopsidales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Santalales" title="Santalales">Santalales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Caryophyllales" title="Caryophyllales">Caryophyllales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Asterids" title="Asterids">Asterids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cornales" title="Cornales">Cornales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ericales" title="Ericales">Ericales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Campanulids" class="mw-redirect" title="Campanulids">Campanulids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Aquifoliales" title="Aquifoliales">Aquifoliales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Asterales" title="Asterales">Asterales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Escalloniaceae" title="Escalloniaceae">Escalloniales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bruniales" title="Bruniales">Bruniales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Apiales" title="Apiales">Apiales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Dipsacales" title="Dipsacales">Dipsacales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Paracryphiaceae" title="Paracryphiaceae">Paracryphiales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D4EED4;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Lamiids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamiids">Lamiids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Icacinales" title="Icacinales">Icacinales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Metteniusaceae" title="Metteniusaceae">Metteniusales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Garryales" title="Garryales">Garryales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Boraginales" title="Boraginales">Boraginales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gentianales" title="Gentianales">Gentianales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Lamiales" title="Lamiales">Lamiales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Solanales" title="Solanales">Solanales</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Vahlia" title="Vahlia">Vahliales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Flower_poster_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flower_poster_2.jpg/140px-Flower_poster_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flower_poster_2.jpg/210px-Flower_poster_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Flower_poster_2.jpg/280px-Flower_poster_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4462" data-file-height="5932" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background:#C3EEC3;"><div>
<ul><li>¹<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Basal_angiosperms" title="Basal angiosperms">Basal angiosperms</a></li>
<li>²<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Alismatid_monocots" title="Alismatid monocots">Alismatids</a></li>
<li>³<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Lilioid_monocots" title="Lilioid monocots">Lilioids</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Category:Angiosperm_orders" title="Category:Angiosperm orders">Category</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lists_of_flowering_plant_families_(APG_IV)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#C3EEC3;;background:#90EE90;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Lists_of_angiosperm_families" title="Template:Lists of angiosperm families"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template_talk:Lists_of_angiosperm_families" title="Template talk:Lists of angiosperm families"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:EditPage/Template:Lists_of_angiosperm_families" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lists of angiosperm families"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lists_of_flowering_plant_families_(APG_IV)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Lists of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">flowering plant</a> families (<a href="./wiki.php?slug=APG_IV_system" title="APG IV system">APG IV</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Early-<br />diverging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_early-diverging_flowering_plant_families" title="List of early-diverging flowering plant families">Early-diverging flowering plants</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Monocotyledon" title="Monocotyledon">Monocots</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_alismatid_families" title="List of alismatid families">Alismatids</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_commelinid_families" title="List of commelinid families">Commelinids</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_lilioid_families" title="List of lilioid families">Lilioids</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Eudicots" title="Eudicots">Eudicots</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Eudicots#Subdivisions" title="Eudicots">Early-<br />diverging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_basal_eudicot_families" title="List of basal eudicot families">Basal eudicots</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_basal_eudicot_families#Dilleniales_and_Gunnerales_families" title="List of basal eudicot families">Dilleniales and Gunnerales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Superasterids" title="Superasterids">Super-<br />asterids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_basal_superasterid_families" title="List of basal superasterid families">Basal superasterids</a></li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Asterids" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Asterids" title="Asterids">Asterids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_basal_asterid_families" title="List of basal asterid families">Basal asterids</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_euasterid_families" title="List of euasterid families">Euasterids</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Superrosids" title="Superrosids">Super-<br />rosids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_Saxifragales,_Vitales_and_Zygophyllales_families" title="List of Saxifragales, Vitales and Zygophyllales families">Saxifragales</a></li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Rosids" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rosids" title="Rosids">Rosids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_COM-clade_families" title="List of COM-clade families">COM clade</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_nitrogen-fixing-clade_families" title="List of nitrogen-fixing-clade families">Nitrogen-fixing clade</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_malvid_families" title="List of malvid families">Malvids</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=List_of_Saxifragales,_Vitales_and_Zygophyllales_families" title="List of Saxifragales, Vitales and Zygophyllales families">Vitales and Zygophyllales</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Template_talk:Life_on_Earth" title="Template talk:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Special:EditPage/Template:Life_on_Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life on Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_life_phyla/divisions_by_domain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Life" title="Life">life</a> phyla/divisions by domain</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Bacteria" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Acidobacteriota" title="Acidobacteriota">Acidobacteriota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Aquificota" title="Aquificota">Aquificota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Armatimonadota" title="Armatimonadota">Armatimonadota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Atribacterota" title="Atribacterota">Atribacterota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bacillota" title="Bacillota">Bacillota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bacteroidota" title="Bacteroidota">Bacteroidota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Balneolota" class="mw-redirect" title="Balneolota">Balneolota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bdellovibrionota" title="Bdellovibrionota">Bdellovibrionota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Caldisericota" class="mw-redirect" title="Caldisericota">Caldisericota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Calditrichota" class="mw-redirect" title="Calditrichota">Calditrichota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Campylobacterota" title="Campylobacterota">Campylobacterota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chlamydiota" title="Chlamydiota">Chlamydiota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">Chlorobiota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota">Chloroflexota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chrysiogenota" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysiogenota">Chrysiogenota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Coprothermobacterota" title="Coprothermobacterota">Coprothermobacterota</a></li>
<li>"<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a>"</li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Deferribacteraceae" title="Deferribacteraceae">Deferribacterota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Deinococcota" title="Deinococcota">Deinococcota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Dictyoglomus_thermophilum" title="Dictyoglomus thermophilum">Dictyoglomota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Elusimicrobiota" title="Elusimicrobiota">Elusimicrobiota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fibrobacterota" title="Fibrobacterota">Fibrobacterota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fusobacteriota" title="Fusobacteriota">Fusobacteriota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gemmatimonadota" title="Gemmatimonadota">Gemmatimonadota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ignavibacteriota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignavibacteriota">Ignavibacteriota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Kiritimatiellota" title="Kiritimatiellota">Kiritimatiellota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Lentisphaerota" title="Lentisphaerota">Lentisphaerota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Mycoplasmatota" title="Mycoplasmatota">Mycoplasmatota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Myxococcota" title="Myxococcota">Myxococcota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nitrospinota" title="Nitrospinota">Nitrospinota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nitrospirota" title="Nitrospirota">Nitrospirota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Planctomycetota" title="Planctomycetota">Planctomycetota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Pseudomonadota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rhodothermota" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodothermota">Rhodothermota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Spirochaetota" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochaetota">Spirochaetota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Synergistota" title="Synergistota">Synergistota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Thermodesulfobacteriota" title="Thermodesulfobacteriota">Thermodesulfobacteriota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Thermomicrobiota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermomicrobiota">Thermomicrobiota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Thermotogota" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermotogota">Thermotogota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Verrucomicrobiota" title="Verrucomicrobiota">Verrucomicrobiota</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Archaea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>"<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Euryarchaeota" title="Euryarchaeota">Euryarchaeota</a>"</li>
<li>"<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Korarchaeota" title="Korarchaeota">Korarchaeota</a>"</li>
<li>"<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nanoarchaeota" title="Nanoarchaeota">Nanoarchaeota</a>"</li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nitrososphaerota" title="Nitrososphaerota">Nitrososphaerota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Thermoproteota" title="Thermoproteota">Thermoproteota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Archaeal_Richmond_Mine_acidophilic_nanoorganisms" title="Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms">Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="./wiki.php?slug=Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ancyromonadida" title="Ancyromonadida">Ancyromonadida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Apusomonadida" class="mw-redirect" title="Apusomonadida">Apusomonadida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Breviatea" title="Breviatea">Breviatea</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=CRuMs" title="CRuMs">CRuMs</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cryptista" title="Cryptista">Cryptista</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliophora</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Discoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Discoba">Discoba</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Euglenozoa" title="Euglenozoa">Euglenozoa</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Jakobea" class="mw-redirect" title="Jakobea">Jakobea</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Haptista" title="Haptista">Haptista</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Hemimastigophora" title="Hemimastigophora">Hemimastigophora</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Malawimonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Malawimonada">Malawimonada</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Metamonada" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamonada">Metamonada</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Provora" title="Provora">Provora</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Stramenopiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Stramenopiles">Stramenopiles</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Telonemia" title="Telonemia">Telonemia</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Blastocladiomycota" title="Blastocladiomycota">Blastocladiomycota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Neocallimastigomycota" title="Neocallimastigomycota">Neocallimastigomycota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Glaucophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaucophyta">Glaucophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rhodophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodophyta">Rhodophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chlorophyta" title="Chlorophyta">Chlorophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Charophyta" title="Charophyta">Charophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Marchantiophyta" title="Marchantiophyta">Marchantiophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Anthocerotophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthocerotophyta">Anthocerotophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Moss" title="Moss">Moss</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Lycopodiophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lycopodiophyta">Lycopodiophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pteridophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pteridophyta">Pteridophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cycadophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycadophyta">Cycadophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ginkgophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginkgophyta">Ginkgophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Pinophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinophyta">Pinophyta</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gnetophyta" title="Gnetophyta">Gnetophyta</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Flowering plant</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Sponge" title="Sponge">Sponge</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordate</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">Hemichordate</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">Echinoderm</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Chaetognatha" title="Chaetognatha">Chaetognatha</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Kinorhyncha" title="Kinorhyncha">Kinorhyncha</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Loricifera" title="Loricifera">Loricifera</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Priapulida" title="Priapulida">Priapulida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematoda</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nematomorpha" title="Nematomorpha">Nematomorpha</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Onychophora" title="Onychophora">Onychophora</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">Tardigrada</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Flatworm" title="Flatworm">Flatworm</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gastrotricha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrotricha">Gastrotricha</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Orthonectida" title="Orthonectida">Orthonectida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Dicyemida" title="Dicyemida">Dicyemida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Rotifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rotifera">Rotifera</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Gnathostomulida" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnathostomulida">Gnathostomulida</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Micrognathozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Micrognathozoa">Micrognathozoa</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Cycliophora" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycliophora">Cycliophora</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Nemertea" title="Nemertea">Nemertea</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Phoronid" title="Phoronid">Phoronid</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Bryozoa</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Entoprocta" title="Entoprocta">Entoprocta</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Brachiopoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Brachiopoda">Brachiopoda</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Mollusca</a></li>
<li><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Annelid" title="Annelid">Annelida</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Incertae_sedis" title="Incertae sedis">Incertae sedis</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><i><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Parakaryon_myojinensis" title="Parakaryon myojinensis">Parakaryon</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portal</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=File:Leaf_1_web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/21px-Leaf_1_web.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/32px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/42px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span> </span><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Portal:Plants" title="Portal:Plants">Plants</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130094686">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Flowering plant</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="./wiki.php?slug=Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a class="extiw" title="c:Category:Angiosperms">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a class="extiw" title="b:Magnoliophyta">Textbooks</a></b> from Wikibooks</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/16px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/25px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/32px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="1103" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a class="extiw" title="species:Magnoliophyta">Taxa</a></b> from Wikispecies</span></li></ul></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><i>Angiospermae</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q25314">Q25314</a></span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Magnoliopsida">Magnoliopsida</a></span></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=EPPO_Code" title="EPPO Code">EPPO</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">1ANGC</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">47125</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;">PPE: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">angiosperma-parasites</a></span></span></li>
<li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Tree_of_Life_Web_Project" title="Tree of Life Web Project">Tree of Life</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">20646</a></span></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="./wiki.php?slug=Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Angiospermas"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">Spain</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Angiospermes"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">France</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Angiospermes"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">BnF data</a></span></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">Germany</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">Israel</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">United States</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">Japan</a></span></li>
<li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="krytosemenné rostliny"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">Czech Republic</a></span></span>
<ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="kvetoucí rostliny"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text">2</a></span></span></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node ($1) (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change ($1) (timestamp) | '1716513305' |